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Cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses against tumors are maintained by stem-like memory cells that self-renew but also give rise to effector-like cells. The latter gradually lose their anti-tumor activity and acquire an epigenetically fixed, hypofunctional state, leading to tumor tolerance. Here, we show that the conversion of stem-like into effector-like CTLs involves a major chemotactic reprogramming that includes the upregulation of chemokine receptor CXCR6. This receptor positions effector-like CTLs in a discrete perivascular niche of the tumor stroma that is densely occupied by CCR7+ dendritic cells (DCs) expressing the CXCR6 ligand CXCL16. CCR7+ DCs also express and trans-present the survival cytokine interleukin-15 (IL-15). CXCR6 expression and IL-15 trans-presentation are critical for the survival and local expansion of effector-like CTLs in the tumor microenvironment to maximize their anti-tumor activity before progressing to irreversible dysfunction. These observations reveal a cellular and molecular checkpoint that determines the magnitude and outcome of anti-tumor immune responses.

Constitutive activation of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway has been implicated as the primary cause of colon cancer. However, the major transducers of Wnt signaling in the intestine, T-cell factor 1 (TCF-1) and TCF-4, have opposing functions. Knockout of TCF-4 suppresses growth and maintenance of crypt stem cells, whereas knockout of TCF-1 leads to adenomas. These phenotypes suggest that TCF-4 is Wnt-promoting, whereas TCF-1 acts like a tumor suppressor. Our study of TCF expression in human colon crypts reveals a mechanistic basis for this paradox. In normal colon cells, a dominant-negative isoform of TCF-1 (dnTCF-1) is expressed that is equally distributed between nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments. In colon cancer cells, TCF-1 is predominantly cytoplasmic. Localization is because of active nuclear export and is directed by an autocrine-acting Wnt ligand that requires Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) activity for secretion and a downstream step in the export pathway. TCF-4 remains nuclear; its unopposed activity is accompanied by downregulation of dnTCF-1 and increased expression of full-length isoforms. Thus, the dnTCF-1 and TCF-4 balance is corrupted in cancer by two mechanisms, a Wnt/CaMKII kinase signal for nuclear export and decreased dnTCF-1 expression. We propose that dnTCF-1 provides homeostatic regulation of Wnt signaling and growth in normal colon, and the alterations in nuclear export and promoter usage contribute to aberrant Wnt activity in colon cancer.

Constitutive activation of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway has been implicated as the primary cause of colon cancer. However, the major transducers of Wnt signaling in the intestine, T-cell factor 1 (TCF-1) and TCF-4, have opposing functions. Knockout of TCF-4 suppresses growth and maintenance of crypt stem cells, whereas knockout of TCF-1 leads to adenomas. These phenotypes suggest that TCF-4 is Wnt-promoting, whereas TCF-1 acts like a tumor suppressor. Our study of TCF expression in human colon crypts reveals a mechanistic basis for this paradox. In normal colon cells, a dominant-negative isoform of TCF-1 (dnTCF-1) is expressed that is equally distributed between nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments. In colon cancer cells, TCF-1 is predominantly cytoplasmic. Localization is because of active nuclear export and is directed by an autocrine-acting Wnt ligand that requires Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) activity for secretion and a downstream step in the export pathway. TCF-4 remains nuclear; its unopposed activity is accompanied by downregulation of dnTCF-1 and increased expression of full-length isoforms. Thus, the dnTCF-1 and TCF-4 balance is corrupted in cancer by two mechanisms, a Wnt/CaMKII kinase signal for nuclear export and decreased dnTCF-1 expression. We propose that dnTCF-1 provides homeostatic regulation of Wnt signaling and growth in normal colon, and the alterations in nuclear export and promoter usage contribute to aberrant Wnt activity in colon cancer.

Lymphoid Enhancer Factor-1 (LEF-1) is a member of a family of transcription factors that function as downstream mediators of the Wnt signal transduction pathway. In the absence of Wnt signals, specific LEF/TCF isoforms repress rather than activate gene targets through recruitment of the co-repressor CtBP. Characterization of the full-length human LEF-1 gene locus and its complete set of mRNA products shows that this family member exists as a unique set of alternatively spliced isoforms; none are homologous to TCF-1E/TCF-4E. Therefore LEF-1 is distinct from its TCF family members in that it cannot engage in activities specific to this isoform such as recruitment of the co-repressor CtBP. Expression of alternatively spliced LEF-1 isoforms are driven by a promoter that is highly active in lymphocyte cell lines. Transcription initiates within a TATA-less core promoter region that contains consensus binding sites for Sp1, an E box, an Initiator element and a LEF/TCF binding site, all juxtaposed to the start sites of transcription. The promoter is most active in a B lymphocyte cell line (Raji) in which the endogenous LEF-1 gene is silent, suggesting that the promoter region is actively repressed by a silencing mechanism.

Lymphoid Enhancer Factor-1 (LEF-1) is a member of a family of transcription factors that function as downstream mediators of the Wnt signal transduction pathway. In the absence of Wnt signals, specific LEF/TCF isoforms repress rather than activate gene targets through recruitment of the co-repressor CtBP. Characterization of the full-length human LEF-1 gene locus and its complete set of mRNA products shows that this family member exists as a unique set of alternatively spliced isoforms; none are homologous to TCF-1E/TCF-4E. Therefore LEF-1 is distinct from its TCF family members in that it cannot engage in activities specific to this isoform such as recruitment of the co-repressor CtBP. Expression of alternatively spliced LEF-1 isoforms are driven by a promoter that is highly active in lymphocyte cell lines. Transcription initiates within a TATA-less core promoter region that contains consensus binding sites for Sp1, an E box, an Initiator element and a LEF/TCF binding site, all juxtaposed to the start sites of transcription. The promoter is most active in a B lymphocyte cell line (Raji) in which the endogenous LEF-1 gene is silent, suggesting that the promoter region is actively repressed by a silencing mechanism.