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Policies mitigating climate change provide a global public good but are also likely to imply local co-benefits where implemented. This may affect citizens’ preferences for what policy to implement as well as where to implement it. This aspect remains understudied despite its relevance for international climate negotiations, national policies, and the development of voluntary carbon credit markets. The results of a discrete choice experiment show that citizens in five countries (Denmark, France, Germany, Italy and Spain) have quite similar mean willingness to pay for carbon emission reductions and agree on the ranking of policies targeting different sectors. Specifically, policies targeting renewable energy use, are preferred over policies targeting industrial energy efficiency or carbon sequestration and biomass production in forests. Applying follow-up questions shows that concerns over co-benefits, notably air pollution, is linked to preferences for implementation in the home country. In the absence of co-benefits, citizens are indifferent or prefer policies implemented in other countries. Key policy highlights Citizens in five European countries share preferences for climate change mitigation policies, though significant intra-national heterogeneity in preferences exist Policies targeting increased use of renewables are preferred over policies targeting improved energy efficiency in the industry. Citizens express preferences for policies implemented in their own country. This is associated with their perception of co-benefits. In particular, consideration of reduced air pollution as a side effect of investing in renewable energy and in energy efficiency in the industry are important determinants of preferences for national implementation of policies. Preferences for national co-benefits may both enhance policy acceptance and reduce willingness to support policies implemented in other countries. The latter aspect may reduce cost-effectiveness across countries b

While carbon dioxide removal is indispensable in net-zero climate policy, incentives to deploy removals are limited. Swedish public support to biochar is one exception. This paper draws on the Swedish case to explore expectations put on biochar and the significance of public support for fulfilling these expectations. The analysis shows that biochar is expected to contribute to several environmental objectives. However, while biochar producers and users voice expectations on strengthening the multifunctionality of landscapes, e.g., improved ecosystem resilience and reduced nutrient run-off, the authorities rather narrowly direct attention to the stability of biochar as a carbon storage. Nevertheless, public support is contributing to a small but important protective space for biochar development through three channels: First, through investment grants, which are crucial for the emerging Swedish biochar production capacity. Second, through demand-pull created by municipalities that specify high environmental safeguards, which favours domestic production over import. Third, indirectly through support of production facilities that enable intermediary activities for gathering and sharing knowledge. However, while recent changes to EU state aid regulation may be a game-changer, EU has until now acted as a barrier to support to carbon dioxide removal. This socio-technical regime resistance, combined with a lack of jointly articulated expectations on biochar, appear to have been preventing deployment on more significant scale., QC 20240528

Flooding is expected to increase due to climate change, urbanisation, and land use change. To address this issue, Nature-Based Solutions (NBSs) are often adopted as innovative and sustainable flood risk management methods. Besides the flood risk reduction benefits, NBSs offer co-benefits for the environment and society. However, these co-benefits are rarely considered in flood risk management due to the inherent complexities of incorporating them into economic assessments. This research addresses this gap by developing a comprehensive methodology that integrates the monetary analysis of co-benefits with flood risk reduction in economic assessments. In doing so, it aspires to provide a more holistic view of the impact of NBS in flood risk management. The assessment employs a framework based on life-cycle cost-benefit analysis, offering a systematic and transparent assessment of both costs and benefits over time supported by key indicators like net present value and benefit cost ratio. The methodology has been applied to the Tamnava basin in Serbia, where significant flooding occurred in 2014 and 2020. The methodology offers valuable insights for practitioners, researchers, and planners seeking to assess the co-benefits of NBS and integrate them into economic assessments. The results show that when considering flood risk reduction alone, all considered measures have higher costs than the benefits derived from avoiding flood damage. However, when incorporating co-benefits, several NBS have a net positive economic impact, including afforestation/reforestation and retention ponds with cost-benefit ratios of 3.5 and 5.6 respectively. This suggests that incorporating co-benefits into economic assessments can significantly increase the overall economic efficiency and viability of NBS., BT/Environmental Biotechnology

Flooding is expected to increase due to climate change, urbanisation, and land use change. To address this issue, Nature-Based Solutions (NBSs) are often adopted as innovative and sustainable flood risk management methods. Besides the flood risk reduction benefits, NBSs offer co-benefits for the environment and society. However, these co-benefits are rarely considered in flood risk management due to the inherent complexities of incorporating them into economic assessments. This research addresses this gap by developing a comprehensive methodology that integrates the monetary analysis of co-benefits with flood risk reduction in economic assessments. In doing so, it aspires to provide a more holistic view of the impact of NBS in flood risk management. The assessment employs a framework based on life-cycle cost-benefit analysis, offering a systematic and transparent assessment of both costs and benefits over time supported by key indicators like net present value and benefit cost ratio. The methodology has been applied to the Tamnava basin in Serbia, where significant flooding occurred in 2014 and 2020. The methodology offers valuable insights for practitioners, researchers, and planners seeking to assess the co-benefits of NBS and integrate them into economic assessments. The results show that when considering flood risk reduction alone, all considered measures have higher costs than the benefits derived from avoiding flood damage. However, when incorporating co-benefits, several NBS have a net positive economic impact, including afforestation/reforestation and retention ponds with cost-benefit ratios of 3.5 and 5.6 respectively. This suggests that incorporating co-benefits into economic assessments can significantly increase the overall economic efficiency and viability of NBS.

Although biodiversity is a central component of food systems, conventional food systems have become one of the major drivers of biodiversity loss globally. There is an increasing need to transform food systems to provide sufficient and nutritious food, but with minimal negative impacts on the environment and society. One of the possible avenues to enable the sustainable transformation of food systems might be through the development of locally appropriate biodiversity-based solutions. In this paper we report the insights and lessons learned during the design and implementation of transdisciplinary projects that employed the concept of Sustainable Development Goals labs (SDG-Labs) to create biodiversity-based solutions to transform food systems. The six SDG-Labs outlined in this paper were implemented in Armenia, China, Japan, Madagascar, Thailand, and Uganda. Collectively they developed very diverse biodiversity-based solutions that used different components of biodiversity, ranging from novel cultivation systems with endangered plants, to gardens using tree species for wind breaks, or novel tea-forestry production systems. Beyond their ability to leverage different components of biodiversity to transform local food systems (also conserving biodiversity in the process), all solutions had multiple co-benefits such as climate change adaptation/mitigation and livelihoods generation, among other sustainability domains. Through a Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats (SWOT) analysis we synthesized the experiences gained during the design and implementation of all six SDG-Labs. The findings suggest the great promise of these transdisciplinary approaches for developing solutions at the biodiversity-food-climate nexus. However, this synthesis paper also points to the multiple context-specific challenges that should be overcomed to maximize the potential of SDG-Labs to both enable the sustainable transformation of (local) food systems and/or be scaled up effectively.

The LES Project (LES-Llavor Energètica i Salut. Del cole a casa i a la societat, in English: Energy and Health Seed. From school to home and society) is seen as an opportunity to increase the visibility of the role of science and women scientists in their actual contexts and to present architectural research as essential in mitigating climate change and improving people’s health. The goal of this research was to reach the greatest range of people possible through intergenerational transfer. However, the main receptors and drivers were students aged between 8 and 10 years old who were responsible for transmitting energy and environmental conditioning concepts and their interrelations with strategic performance in buildings. Awareness was raised through scientific workshops implemented in primary schools that had energy and air quality deficiencies and opportunities, and the concepts were extrapolated to housing. Two schools in different socioeconomic districts (vulnerable and middle-income families) were selected as a strategy to provide details about the perceptions of energy benefits in both schools’ families. The results of the experience were highly satisfactory. Children from 8 to 10 years old were interested and ready to understand and transfer key concepts about energy efficiency and health improvement through the transformation of the buildings surrounding them. The dissemination of the project and social awareness reached the primary students of the two schools selected for the project and the entire educational community (students, teachers, families and all of society). Currently, we are working on a second stage that will allow for a broad volume of replicability of the workshops, with schoolteachers taking the lead in these actions. For this purpose, LES has the support of the Department of Education of the Generalitat de Catalunya., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

With the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme climate events in cities, it is essential to develop multi-scale and multi-hazard design tools to ensure urban climate resilience. A designed approach to urban development across spatial scales offers the opportunity to integrate diverse fields to create a strong multidisciplinary knowledge base and avoid fragmented planning approaches. This paper proposes a process-based methodological framework for climate resilient urban design-integrating analysis of climate impact with concerns of local communities. A combined focus on climate impact and co-benefits enables a design process with the ability to promote adaptation and mitigation while also addressing diverse urban challenges and responding to local needs and priorities. The proposed methodological framework is applied in the context of the climate resilient urban redevelopment of the Porte de Montreuil district in Paris, France. The results show that the Porte de Montreuil area is at risk from heat waves as a result of the urban characteristics of the area. However, it is possible to suggest specific design measures that integrate local planning priorities with climate resilient design measures to decrease the risk and improve climate resilience in the area.

Worldwide, national governments and private organizations are increasingly investing in Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) to foster both human well-being and biodiversity while achieving climate and environmental targets. Yet, investments in NBS remain uncoordinated among planning levels, their co-benefits underestimated, and their effectiveness undermined. This study aims to provide a spatially explicit approach to optimize the budget allocation for NBS implementation across Italian urban areas while maximizing their effectiveness in terms of environmental health. We explored three different NBS implementation scenarios oriented to (i) maximize the Ecosystem Services supply of NBS (Scenario BP), (ii) minimize costs of NBS (Scenario LC), and (iii) maximize Ecosystem Services supply of NBS at the lowest cost (Scenario CP). Once selected, we prioritized their allocation through the territory following an environmental risk index for population, and we explored the relationship between costs and effectiveness for the three scenarios. The implementation of Scenario BP costs EUR 777 billion while showing 31 billion of effectiveness. Scenario LC costs 70% less than scenario BP (EUR 206 billion) while losing 70% of its effectiveness. Scenario CP costs 60% less than Scenario BP (EUR 301 billion), offering just 20% less effectiveness. Our results show that employing the risk index for NBS allocation would allow for reducing the surface of interventions by saving 67% of the budget in the three scenarios with a negligible loss in terms of return for human health. The here-proposed approach can guide the national funds’ allocation system, improving its cost-effectiveness and equitableness.

Nature-based solutions (NbS) are gaining popularity as tools to address societal challenges while providing social, economic, and environmental benefits. Given that NbS is a relatively new concept, there is a lack of guidance on how NbS in urban areas can be adapted to fit their socio-spatial context and provide benefits. This research uses an exploratory comparative case study between Rotterdam, the Netherlands, and Malmö, Sweden, to generate insights into practitioners’ considerations when planning for and implementing NbS and how these can differ. It triangulates qualitative interviews with policy document analysis to explore how NbS are considered in the everyday practicalities of municipal planning. This thesis finds that foundational and organisational factors include the lacking use of the term ‘NbS’ in practice and the importance of economic aspects in decision-making. Because of limited space in the urban fabric, multifunctionality is important and provides a platform to combine budgets. During planning and implementation, NbS are developed on a problem-solving basis, often piggybacking on other projects for cost efficiency. The social benefits of NbS are appreciated, and formal and informal involvement processes are used to adapt projects to their local context. The outcomes and goals show that the visibility of NbS has many benefits. This research finds that prioritisation is key throughout the planning- and implementation process of NbS in both cities. Additionally, ways of social involvement are person-dependent. Lastly, while academia has adopted the term, ‘NbS’ has not translated to municipal practice yet.

Bioenergy aims to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contribute to meeting global climate change mitigation targets. Nevertheless, several sustainability concerns are associated with bioenergy, especially related to the impacts of using land for dedicated energy crop production. Cultivating energy crops can result in synergies or trade-offs between GHG emission reductions and other sustainability effects depending on context-specific conditions. Using the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) framework, the main synergies and trade-offs associated with land use for dedicated energy crop production were identified. Furthermore, the context-specific conditions (i.e., biomass feedstock, previous land use, climate, soil type and agricultural management) which affect those synergies and trade-offs were also identified. The most recent literature was reviewed and a pairwise comparison between GHG emission reduction (SDG 13) and other SDGs was carried out. A total of 427 observations were classified as either synergy (170), trade-off (176), or no effect (81). Most synergies with environmentally-related SDGs, such as water quality and biodiversity conservation, were observed when perennial crops were produced on arable land, pasture or marginal land in the ‘cool temperate moist’ climate zone and ‘high activity clay’ soils. Most trade-offs were related to food security and water availability. Previous land use and feedstock type are more impactful in determining synergies and trade-offs than climatic zone and soil type. This study highlights the importance of considering context-specific conditions in evaluating synergies and trade-offs and their relevance for developing appropriate policies and practices to meet worldwide demand for bioenergy in a sustainable manner.

We study the role of co-benefits – positive effects of climate protection projects in addition to CO2 reduction – for the motivation to contribute to climate change mitigation. In two artefactual field experiments conducted with large population samples from Germany (n = 2,400 in total), we test if and how the existence and specific nature of co-benefits affect donations. In both experiments, we find that co-benefits have a positive impact on contributions to climate protection. Our second experiment shows that contributions also respond to the nature of co-benefits, and these responses seem to be driven by individual donor preferences for the respective type of co-benefit. Moreover, we observe that making carbon footprints and thus individual responsibility for environmental externalities more salient increases donations irrespective of the existence and nature of co-benefits. Finally, when uncertainty about co-benefits is introduced, the majority of potential donors requests information in both experiments, and those who choose to be informed about co-benefits provide higher donations relative to subjects who choose not to be informed.

The majority of the world population is living in urban areas. As cities expand, soil sealing increases the vulnerability of urban areas to pluvial floods, and the consequent impacts on social and economic domains. Flood mitigation typically relies on grey infrastructures, but the implementation of Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) can be critical to cope with increasing flood hazard driven by urbanization and climate change. By mimicking natural hydrological processes, NBS enhance water retention, infiltration and evapotranspiration through greening, leading to lower runoff and flood hazard. The effectiveness of NBS on flood mitigation is affected by several factors including the type of NBS and the biophysical characteristics of the area. Nevertheless, a relatively limited number of studies have monitored the impact of NBS, and thus the lack of knowledge is still a barrier to the widespread implementation of this approach. This chapter assesses the impact of a Green Infrastructure (GI) located in Coimbra (Portugal), which performs as a NBS for runoff management and flood hazard mitigation. The study applies the widely used Curve Number method to estimate runoff within the Quinta de São Jerónimo study site, driven by rainfall events of 2-, 5-, 10- and 20-years recurrence, based on Intensity–Duration–Frequency precipitation curves. The results show that the implemented NBS can retain runoff produced by 20-years flood, decreasing the flood peak and flood hazard in downstream urban areas. This efficiency is achieved by combining blue, green and grey elements, and proved useful to enhance urban resilience. Furthermore, the green and blue elements of the NBS provide additional ecosystem services, including environmental, social and economic benefits (co-benefits), relevant for human well-being in urban areas.

Nature-based Solutions function (NBS) as an umbrella concept for ecosystem-based approaches that are an alternative to traditional engineering solutions for Disaster Risk Reduction. Their rising popularity is explained partly by their entailing additional benefits (so-called co-benefits) for the environment, society, and economy. The few existing frameworks for assessing co-benefits are lacking guidance on co-benefit pre-assessment that is required for the NBS selec-tion and permission process. Going beyond these, this paper develops a comprehensive guidance on quantitative pre-assessment of potential co-benefits and disbenefits of NBS tackling Disaster Risk Reduction. It builds on methods and frameworks from existing NBS literature and related disciplines. Furthermore, this paper discusses the evaluation of the quantified results of the pre-assessment. In particular, the evaluation focuses on the significance of change of the estimated co-benefits and disbenefits as well as the sustainability of the NBS. This paper will support decision-making in planning processes on suitability and sustainability of Nature-based Solutions and assist in the preparation of Environmental Impact Assessments of projects.

The reduced emissions in deforestation and degradation (REDD+) initiative uses payments for ecosystem services as incentives for developing countries to manage and protect their forests. REDD+ initiatives also prioritize social (and environmental) co-benefits aimed at improving the livelihoods of communities that are dependent on forests. Despite the incorporation of co-benefits into REDD+ goals, carbon sequestration remains the primary metric for which countries can receive payments from REDD+, but after more than 10 years of REDD+, many site-specific programs have failed to complete the carbon verification process. Here, we examine whether the REDD+ social co-benefits alone are sufficient to have slowed deforestation in the absence of carbon payments on Pemba, Tanzania. Using satellite imagery (Landsat archive), we quantified forest cover change for the period before (2001-2010) and after (2010-2018) the launch in 2010-2011 of Pemba island's REDD+ readiness project. We then compared rates of forest cover change between shehia (administrative units) that were part of REDD+ readiness intervention and those that were not, adjusting for confounding variables and the non-random selection of REDD+ shehia with a statistical matching procedure. Despite considerable variation in forest outcomes among shehia, the associated co-benefits with the Pemba REDD+ project had no discernible effect on forest cover change. Likewise, we did not detect an effect of socioecological covariates on forest cover change across all shehia, though island-wide human population growth since 2012 may have played a role. These findings are unsurprising given the failure to secure carbon payments on Pemba and indicate that co-benefits alone are insufficient to reduce deforestation. We conclude that better oversight of all-involved parties is needed to ensure that REDD+ interventions satisfactorily conclude the process of securing a mechanism for carbon payments, if slowing deforestation is to be ac

I takt med ökad klimatpåverkan finns allt starkare argument för en skärpt klimatpolitik. Samtidigt finns ett motstånd som inte minst bygger på uppfattningen att klimatåtgärder är orimligt dyra. Därför framställs klimatåtgärder ofta som en börda som måste fördelas mellan och inom länder. En tänkbar förklaring till denna uppfattning är att de nyttor som klimatåtgärder leder till utöver minskade klimatskador ofta varken synliggörs inför eller beaktas vid politiskt beslutsfattande. De synergieffekter som kan uppstå är i regel signifikanta i ekonomiska termer, i vissa fall större än kostnaden för den ursprungliga klimatåtgärden. Det är således missvisande att prata om klimatpolitik som om det enbart är en börda som måste fördelas, när det även finns nyttor att fördela. Detta framgår i denna rapport som redovisar forskningen om sidonyttor och vad denna kunskap kan innebära för samhället i allmänhet och klimatpolitiken i synnerhet. Den mest välstuderade sidonyttan av klimatåtgärder är förbättrad hälsa till följd av minskade luftföroreningar, men det finns även vetenskapligt stöd för att klimatåtgärder leder till förbättrad energisäkerhet, ökad biologisk mångfald och ökad sysselsättning. I denna rapport kallas dessa sidonyttor för Typ 1-nyttor. Sidonyttor kan också följa av beslut inom andra politikområden, exempelvis inom välfärds- och skatteområdet, där åtgärder vars huvudsakliga syfte är ett annat kan minska utsläppen. Detta kallar vi för Typ 2-nyttor. Samhällsekonomiska analyser är ett viktigt redskap i den politiska beslutsprocessen. I dessa står kostnader ofta i fokus, vilket givetvis är relevant för politiker som söker maximera samhällsnyttan av en begränsad budget och därför prioriterar mellan olika åtgärder. Det är dock viktigt att analysen även beaktar alla de sidonyttor som en åtgärd kan tänkas leda till, annars kan samhällsnyttan bli en helt annan än den största möjliga. Den genomgång av svensk klimatpolitik samt myndigheters och kommittéers klimatarbete som

We investigated the association of urban landscape profiles with health and environmental outcomes, and whether those profiles are linked to environmental and health co-benefits. In this ecological study, we used data from 208 cities in 8 Latin American countries of the SALud URBana en América Latina (SALURBAL) project. Four urban landscape profiles were defined with metrics for the fragmentation, isolation, and shape of patches (contiguous area of urban development). Four environmental measures (lack of greenness, PM2.5, NO2, and carbon footprint), two cause-specific mortality rates (non-communicable diseases and unintentional injury mortality), and prevalence of three risk factors (hypertension, diabetes, and obesity) for adults were used as the main outcomes. We used linear regression models to evaluate the association of urban landscape profiles with environmental and health outcomes. In addition, we used finite mixture modeling to create co-benefit classes. Cities with the scattered pixels profile (low fragmentation, high isolation, and compact shaped patches) were most likely to have positive co-benefits. Profiles described as proximate stones (moderate fragmentation, moderate isolation, and irregular shape) and proximate inkblots (moderate-high fragmentation, moderate isolation, and complex shape) were most likely to have negative co-benefits. The contiguous large inkblots profile (low fragmentation, low isolation, and complex shape) was most likely to have mixed benefits.

Bioenergy aims to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contribute to meeting global climate change mitigation targets. Nevertheless, several sustainability concerns are associated with bioenergy, especially related to the impacts of using land for dedicated energy crop production. Cultivating energy crops can result in synergies or trade-offs between GHG emission reductions and other sustainability effects depending on context-specific conditions. Using the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) framework, the main synergies and trade-offs associated with land use for dedicated energy crop production were identified. Furthermore, the context-specific conditions (i.e., biomass feedstock, previous land use, climate, soil type and agricultural management) which affect those synergies and trade-offs were also identified. The most recent literature was reviewed and a pairwise comparison between GHG emission reduction (SDG 13) and other SDGs was carried out. A total of 427 observations were classified as either synergy (170), trade-off (176), or no effect (81). Most synergies with environmentally-related SDGs, such as water quality and biodiversity conservation, were observed when perennial crops were produced on arable land, pasture or marginal land in the ‘cool temperate moist’ climate zone and ‘high activity clay’ soils. Most trade-offs were related to food security and water availability. Previous land use and feedstock type are more impactful in determining synergies and trade-offs than climatic zone and soil type. This study highlights the importance of considering context-specific conditions in evaluating synergies and trade-offs and their relevance for developing appropriate policies and practices to meet worldwide demand for bioenergy in a sustainable manner.

While ex-ante evaluations of climate mitigation policies predict that co-benefits of improved air quality will enable the aggregate benefits of climate mitigation policies to outweigh their costs, there is little empirical evidence to support this assertion. In this study, we use data on weekly smokestack emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) from firms participating in Shanghai’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions trading scheme (ETS) to deliver one of the first ex-post evaluations on the co-benefits of China’s ETS. Using a panel-regression model in which all firms’ characteristics and seasonal effects are controlled, we find a significant negative association between CO2 emissions prices and industrial SO2 emissions (elasticity of −0.13). A closer examination reveals that most of these effects were driven by specific sectors (iron and steel) and during months in which firms were required to balance their annual CO2 emissions. To ensure our results are not driven by confounding factors and our model’s assumptions, we conducted several falsification checks using SO2 emissions from non-ETS firms and firms from a nearby city, using various model specifications. Our findings suggest that co-benefits from climate mitigation policies should not be taken for granted, and that policy designs and types of sector sources of emissions are important determinants of co-benefits. Key policy insights The study provides empirical evidence for air pollution co-benefits of a CO2 ETS using weekly smokestack-level data from Shanghai, China Evidence from the Shanghai ETS shows that a 1% increase in CO2 prices in Shanghai is associated with a 0.13% decrease in SO2 emissions These co-benefits, however, are limited to specific sectors (e.g. ferrous metals), and are not found in other major CO2 emitting sources or sectors (e.g. power utilities) The relationship between CO2 prices and co-benefits is also stronger during months in which firms are required to balance their annual CO2 emissions using

There is an increasing awareness of the role that buildings, districts, and neighborhoods play on health in the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic that coincides with pressing climate concerns. This has renewed attention to the benefits of nature for both human and climate health. Buildings, cities, and regions are attempting to align regenerative design principles with human health goals but often lack the tools and knowledge to do so. This is partly rooted in a failure to understand how to apply research and policy for different contexts as well as at different scales. It is also still uncertain exactly what types of nature can lead to which types of benefit, and for whom, despite long-standing research within the environmental psychology, sustainability, and design fields. This chapter outlines key research paradigms that influence the way we understand the benefits of nature, where biophilic design theory sits in this field, and how it can be and has been applied at different scales through two case studies at the building and city scale. This chapter ends with the proposal of new directions for integrating biophilic design into regenerative design and policy.

Land-based climate mitigation measures have gained significant attention and importance in public and private sector climate policies. Building on previous studies, we refine and update the mitigation potentials for 20 land-based measures in >200 countries and five regions, comparing "bottom-up" sectoral estimates with integrated assessment models (IAMs). We also assess implementation feasibility at the country level. Cost-effective (available up to $100/tCO2 eq) land-based mitigation is 8-13.8 GtCO2 eq yr-1 between 2020 and 2050, with the bottom end of this range representing the IAM median and the upper end representing the sectoral estimate. The cost-effective sectoral estimate is about 40% of available technical potential and is in line with achieving a 1.5°C pathway in 2050. Compared to technical potentials, cost-effective estimates represent a more realistic and actionable target for policy. The cost-effective potential is approximately 50% from forests and other ecosystems, 35% from agriculture, and 15% from demand-side measures. The potential varies sixfold across the five regions assessed (0.75-4.8 GtCO2eq yr-1 ) and the top 15 countries account for about 60% of the global potential. Protection of forests and other ecosystems and demand-side measures present particularly high mitigation efficiency, high provision of co-benefits, and relatively lower costs. The feasibility assessment suggests that governance, economic investment, and socio-cultural conditions influence the likelihood that land-based mitigation potentials are realized. A substantial portion of potential (80%) is in developing countries and LDCs, where feasibility barriers are of greatest concern. Assisting countries to overcome barriers may result in significant quantities of near-term, low-cost mitigation while locally achieving important climate adaptation and development benefits. Opportunities among countries vary widely depending on types of land-based measures available, their pot

Solar radiation modification, particularly stratospheric aerosol injection, holds the potential to reduce the impacts of climate change on sustainable development, yet could itself generate negative impacts and is subject to intense scholarly debate based on relatively little evidence. Based on expert elicitation involving over 30 individuals with backgrounds across the domains of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), we identify a broad range of potential implications of solar radiation modification for the SDGs. Depending on design and application scenarios, applications could potentially assist in the pursuit of several of the goals by limiting temperature rise and limiting acceleration in atmospheric water cycles as well as extreme weather events. However, by adding to particulates, introducing an additional layer of complexity and potential for conflict in global governance, as well as otherwise altering planetary environments, they might also detract from the pursuit of SDGs and introduce novel risks. The overall impact of solar radiation modification on sustainable development is currently highly uncertain and dependent on climate change mitigation pathways and governance. We identify key areas for further transdisciplinary research the pursuit of which might reduce some uncertainty and help inform emerging governance processes.

Coal-intensive power supply systems, along with a fast-growing electricity demand driven by industry has caused serious air pollution and health concerns. These concerns are particularly prominent in countries where electricity use is likewise dominated by industry and heavily dependent on coal-based electricity. A more efficient industry and coal-free electricity systems are the core components of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Previous studies rarely reflect on the impacts of the electricity savings of industrial consumers on the electricity supply sector with respect to future air emission changes, and also neglect the potential benefits of reducing investments in new generation capacity. Here, a comprehensive modeling framework is newly developed to quantify the connections of electricity savings, coal-based electricity systems, air pollutant emissions, and control investments in China, a country exposed to poor air quality. The modeling framework includes 175 energy efficiency technologies (covering multiple industrial sectors) and detailed information of power generation units (thermal efficiency, environmental performance, and lifespan), and allows for unit-by-unit assessment. We find that industrial efficiency improvements can significantly decrease the dependence on coal-fired power generation, particularly the most polluting power fleet. Efficient use of electricity in industry can drive all small high-polluting coal generation units (i.e. units below 300 MW, in total 753 units) to be phased out and effectively curb less efficient coal-fired plants to come online in China. Meanwhile, the air pollutant emissions can be significantly avoided because of the closed coal-fired power units. Developed cost portfolios demonstrate that improving industrial energy efficiency is more cost-effective than installing flue gas controls in coal-fired plants. We further reveal that a sustainable industry could contribute to climate change mi

Low-carbon pathways consistent with the 2 °C and 1.5 °C long-term climate goals defined in the Paris Agreement are likely to induce substantial co-benefits for air pollution and associated health impacts. In this analysis, using five global integrated assessment models, we quantify the emission reductions in key air pollutants resulting from the decarbonization of energy systems and the resulting changes in premature mortality attributed to the exposure to ambient concentrations of fine particulate matter. The emission reductions differ by sectors. Sulfur emissions are mainly reduced from power plants and industry, cuts in nitrogen oxides are dominated by the transport sector, and the largest abatement of primary fine particles is achieved in the residential sector. The analysis also shows that health benefits are the largest when policies addressing climate change mitigation and stringent air pollution controls are coordinated. We decompose the key factors that determine the extent of health co-benefits, focusing on Asia: changes in emissions, urbanization rates, population growth and ageing. Demographic processes, particularly due to ageing population, counteract in many regions the mortality reductions realized through lower emissions.

As the international community’s best expression of a collective vision of a desirable future, the 2015 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) present a framework against which to assess the broader impact of emerging technologies. Implications of technologies and practices for removing CO2 from the atmosphere (CDR) are not fully understood and have not yet been mapped against the full range of SDGs. CDR is widely seen as necessary to achieve the Paris Agreement’s global goal of limiting warming to 1.5-2°C, yet local geographical, socio-economic, and political interdependencies are often overlooked. This review synthesizes the best available understandings of potential implications of CDR options aiming to complement emissions reductions. It seeks to identify effects on and interactions between specific social, environmental, and policy environments, in which various CDR options could be pursued. Climate change mitigation and co-benefits from CDR could significantly benefit SDGs, yet poorly designed CDR policies could also challenge SDGs. Specific CDR options could generate conflicts over land, water, biomass, or electric power resources, and exclude communities from policy benefits with negative cascading effects for a range of SDGs. In the literature, implications of CDR activities on sustainable development are derived from current pilot activities, inferred from similar practices already operational or model outputs regarding land, energy, or material requirements. Important gaps remain. We identify questions for further disciplinary and inter- or transdisciplinary work strengthening understanding of how CDR could either support or threaten the achievement of the SDGs. Key policy insights CO2 removal (CDR) appears essential for limiting warming to well below 2°C; such stabilization of global climate is a precondition for at least partially achieving the SDGs. CDR options can generate positive and negative local/regional impacts on var

Abstract Air pollution is a major environmental risk factor and contributor to chronic, noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). However, most public health approaches to NCD prevention focus on behavioural and biomedical risk factors, rather than environmental risk factors such as air pollution. This article discusses the implications of such a focus. It then outlines the opportunities for those in public health and environmental science to work together across three key areas to address air pollution, NCDs and climate change: (a) acknowledging the shared drivers, including corporate determinants; (b) taking a ‘co-benefits’ approach to NCD prevention; and (c) expanding prevention research and evaluation methods through investing in systems thinking and intersectoral, cross-disciplinary collaborations.

Energy efficiency programmes (EEPs) are schemes operated by utilities or other bodies in order to incentivize energy efficiency improvement, in particular by adoption of energy-efficient products and typically by means of an economic reward. Ample experience has been gained, especially in the U.S., where EEPs have been in use for decades, with the rationale of avoiding additional energy supply by improving energy efficiency. More recently, EEPs have been implemented in Europe and in Switzerland. This review paper presents insights from the U.S., the EU and especially from Switzerland, with a focus on levelised programme cost of saved energy (LPC) as a key performance indicator. These LPC values, which take the perspective of the programme operator, are typically low to very low compared to the cost of electricity supply, thereby representing an important argument in favour of their use. The country examples show that EEPs are being effectively and successfully put into practice, for example, in Switzerland both as (i) a national tender-based scheme (called ProKilowatt) and in the form of a (ii) utility-operated obligation-based scheme (in Geneva). EEPs not only call for diligent implementation but also for suitable legal settings, e.g., in the form of mandatory energy efficiency savings targets (as realised for energy efficiency obligations, EEOs) in combination with programme cost recovery. The main criticism of EEPs is the free-rider effect, which needs to be minimised. On the other hand, EEPs are accompanied by significant co-benefits (environmental, health-related and social) and spillover effects. In their currently prevalent form, EEPs allow one to effectively save energy at a (very) low cost (“low-hanging fruit”). They can hence play an important role in fostering the energy transition; however, they should be implemented as part of a policy portfolio, in combination with other policy instruments.

Since the rapid industrialisation, local air pollution has become one of China's most important environmental issues. In consequence, increasingly stringent air pollution control policies have been established by the Chinese government. These policies will inevitably affect China's future electric power investment given the key contribution of this sector to air pollution. This sector is also a key contributor to China’s greenhouse gas emissions and hence climate policy efforts. We present a study exploring what impacts of potential interactions and combinations of different policy efforts for local air pollutant control and carbon mitigation have on China's future electricity generation mix. The study utilises a novel generation portfolio model that explicitly incorporates key uncertainties in future technology costs and different policy approaches including carbon pricing and air emissions control. The findings highlight that China can achieve significant reductions for both greenhouse gas and local air pollutant emissions through a combination of climate change and air pollution control policies. Furthermore, there are potentially significant co-benefits from the perspectives of both air pollutant control and carbon mitigation and, notably, that the co-benefit from a sufficient carbon pricing policy to air pollution emission reductions is much stronger than that from stringent air pollutant control policies to carbon mitigation. Specifically, in order to achieve substantial local air pollution and greenhouse gas mitigation from China's electricity sector, it is necessary to close coal-fired power plants rather than merely seeking to clean their air pollution emissions up.

Green prescribing, the referral of patients to nature-based activities, has potential to bring co- benefits for psychological and physiological public health and for environmental health. Literature considers a major limitation to its effective implementation as a holistic, transectoral practice to be lack of a common language and tendency of actors involved to work within their respective paradigms, resulting in silo working and minimising realisation of potential co- benefits. Three research questions (RQs) were posed to explore how this barrier could be overcome. Qualitative analysis was undertaken to identify actors involved in practical application of green prescribing (RQ1) and information flows which exist between actors (RQ2). Interviews and grey literature formed the basis for analysis, themselves arising from two case studies situated in the United Kingdom. Data was fed into actor linkage matrices and determinants diagrams to allow its systematic analysis. Key actors originated from the health and social care sector; environmental sector; national and local governance; and the voluntary, community and social enterprise sector. User groups were additionally highlighted as key actors although were afforded little representation in extant schemes. Weak information flows typically arose between user groups and environmental and health and social care actors; between environmental actors and health and social care actors; and between local and national actors, although limited data was available on the latter. Silo working was thus apparent. A novel conceptual framework, Communities of Boundary Practice, was devised and its application to improve implementation of green prescribing considered (RQ3). Typified by flexibility, openness, inclusion of multi-level and multi-professional actors, shared knowledge generation, reflexive and iterative learning, and holistic responsiveness to feedback mechanisms, the concept provides a systems perspective on green prescrib, Green prescribing, the referral of patients to nature-based activities, has potential to bring co- benefits for psychological and physiological public health and for environmental health. Literature considers a major limitation to its effective implementation as a holistic, transectoral practice to be lack of a common language and tendency of actors involved to work within their respective paradigms, resulting in silo working and minimising realisation of potential co- benefits. Three research questions (RQs) were posed to explore how this barrier could be overcome. Qualitative analysis was undertaken to identify actors involved in practical application of green prescribing (RQ1) and information flows which exist between actors (RQ2). Interviews and grey literature formed the basis for analysis, themselves arising from two case studies situated in the United Kingdom. Data was fed into actor linkage matrices and determinants diagrams to allow its systematic analysis. Key actors originated from the health and social care sector; environmental sector; national and local governance; and the voluntary, community and social enterprise sector. User groups were additionally highlighted as key actors although were afforded little representation in extant schemes. Weak information flows typically arose between user groups and environmental and health and social care actors; between environmental actors and health and social care actors; and between local and national actors, although limited data was available on the latter. Silo working was thus apparent. A novel conceptual framework, Communities of Boundary Practice, was devised and its application to improve implementation of green prescribing considered (RQ3). Typified by flexibility, openness, inclusion of multi-level and multi-professional actors, shared knowledge generation, reflexive and iterative learning, and holistic responsiveness to feedback mechanisms, the concept provides a systems perspective on green prescrib

Moving to a sustainable industry and weaning electricity supply off coal are critical to mitigate ambient air pollution and climate change. This is particularly true in China which is globally the largest manufacturer and relies heavily on coal-fired electricity. Three key knowledge gaps are relevant in this thesis: 1) how much electricity can saved in China’s industries; 2) what is the potential impact of industrial electricity savings on the evolution of electricity supply systems among different power grids; and 3) what is the relationship between electricity use, energy efficiency investments, GHG and air pollution emissions, on various spatial scales. Given the identified knowledge gaps, the objective of this thesis is to conduct an in-depth analysis of electricity saving potentials and cost-benefits of emission mitigation due to scaling up energy efficiency in industries. Our research targets industrial electric efficiency improvements in China, where electricity supply heavily depends on a coal-fired power plant fleet and faces multiple challenges to a sustainable future. Our research presents that improving energy efficiency in industry can help reshape electricity systems to combat global warming and air pollution cost-effectively, not only in China but for the countries where electricity use is likewise dominated by industry and heavily dependent on coal-based electricity, such as India, Germany, Poland, The Netherlands, and South Africa. We suggest that national policymakers who aim to co-control air pollutants and carbon emissions through decreasing the dependency on coal-intensive electricity need to recognize the importance of concurrent efforts to improve demand-side electricity use efficiency.

Blue Carbon (BC) strategy refers to the approaches that mitigate and adapt to climate change through the conservation and restoration of seagrass, saltmarsh and mangrove ecosystems and, in some BC programs, also through the expansion of seaweed aquaculture. The major losses of coastal habitats in combination with the commitments of China under the Paris Agreement provide unique opportunity and necessity to develop a strong Chinese BC program. Here, we (1) characterize China's BC habitats, examine their changes since 1950 along with the drivers of changes; (2) consider the expansion of seaweed aquaculture and how this may be managed to become an emerging BC resource in China, along with the engineering solutions required to enhance its potential; and (3) provide the rationale and elements for BC program in China. We find China currently has 1326–2149 km2 wild and 2–15 km2 created mangrove, saltmarsh and seagrass habitats, while 9236–10059 km2 (77–87%) has been lost since 1950, mainly due to land reclamation. The current area of farmed seaweed habitat is 1252–1265 km2, which is close to the area of wild mangrove, saltmarsh and seagrass habitats. We conclude that BC strategies have potentials yet to be fully developed in China, particularly through climate change adaptation benefits such as coastal protection and eco-environmental co-benefits of seaweed farming such as habitat creation for fish and other biota, alleviation of eutrophication, hypoxia and acidification, and the generation of direct and value added products with lower environmental impact relative to land-based production. On this basis, we provide a roadmap for BC strategies adjusted to the unique characteristics and capacities of China.

By design, climate finance projects have two fundamental features: climate benefits and sustainable development benefits. Climate finance is important for cutting emissions, but it can also deliver significant additional benefits, often termed “co-benefits.” The concept of co-benefits, although lacking a consist definition in the international arena, is so important, especially for the audiences from the developing world. Co-benefits are the backbone of a green and low-carbon development of these developing countries, where promoting high-quality economic development, maintaining economic, financial and energy security, protecting environment and controlling carbon emissions should achieved together. However, how the climate finance market values co-benefits remains poorly understood. By focusing on local co-benefits, this research highlights the importance of valuing co-benefits where projects are located, and how these projects deliver impacts for local communities. This dissertation looks at the question of co-benefits in three specific contexts by using both quantitative and qualitative methods as follows: First, I assess the likelihood that project co-benefits encourage buyers to pay more for Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) within the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the major international offset mechanism within a broader world of carbon finance. Second, I look at potential mechanisms of quality branding associated with the CDM to see whether these indicators in fact attract a price premium attributable to co-benefits. Third, I study the role of offset co-benefits in corporate behavior and decision-making in voluntary carbon markets. My research shows that in the CDM context, a project with a likelihood of delivering more co-benefits receives a higher CER price from buyers. The price difference between projects with the highest co-benefits and lowest co-benefits is $4.9/tCO2e on average or a difference of 27.6 percent. The large variability in the pric

A growing research field shows that climate mitigation measures can entail numerous co-benefits for other policy areas, including improved air quality, enhanced energy security and reduced maintenance costs. One possible strategy for enhancing climate action can be to emphasize these co-benefits. However, research has shown that co-benefits are seldom included when climate mitigation measures are formulated and implemented. This study aimed to investigate how co-benefits of climate mitigation measures are emphasized in Swedish municipalities, and what barriers and possibilities such strategy can entail. A content analysis of climate strategic documents and energy plans of 13 municipalities was performed. Interviews with officers from eight of these municipalities was further carried out. The result showed that co-benefits are recognized and emphasized by municipalities, but to various degree. Both economic, social and environmental co-benefits have been recognized. Larger municipalities tend to emphasize a larger number of different co-benefits in their strategic documents than smaller ones. In communication with politicians, inhabitants and businesses regarding climate mitigation measures, municipal officers raise the issue of co-benefits. The officers emphasized that the communication can advantageously be formulated differently, depending on the target group. Co-benefits are most commonly described qualitatively. Quantifications could enhance the impact of the co-benefits, especially when emphasized for politicians, but such analyses can be too complex for municipal officers to perform. Furthermore, analysing and communicating co-benefits can be time consuming, and more knowledge might be needed. Despite these barriers, emphasizing co-benefits can make mitigation measures more attractive for politicians and other actors. In conclusion, making the co-benefits more visible seems to be one possibly effective approach to enhance climate action in municipalities., Kommunernas uppdrag är omfattande, samtidigt som många kommuner har det tufft ekonomiskt. Skolor ska drivas, vård och omsorg skötas, avfall hämtas och gator asfalteras, och mycket mer därtill. Att klimatfrågan kan hamna längre ner på dagordningen är därför föga förvånande. Samtidigt kan, och behöver, en del av växthusgasutsläppen hanteras på just lokal nivå. En strategi för att öka klimatfrågans genomslagskraft är att uppmärksamma de positiva effekter som sådana satsningar även kan få på andra områden. När vi till exempel åker mindre bil minskar inte bara klimatutsläppen utan luftkvaliteten blir också bättre, vilket är bra för både folkhälsa och miljö. En kommun som arbetar med klimatfrågan kan också locka till sig företag och invånare, och genom att till exempel minska sin energiförbrukning kan kostnaderna minska på köpet. I den här uppsatsen har jag undersökt hur kommuner uppmärksammar sådana positiva effekter, och vilka möjligheter och hinder det kan föra med sig. För att ta reda på detta har jag analyserat klimatstrategier och energiplaner och intervjuat tjänstepersoner. Det visade sig att kommuner i flera sammanhang väljer att kommunicera och lyfta dessa positiva sidoeffekter. Dock tar det tid och kräver resurser, och mer kunskap kan behövas. I intervjuerna framkom att klimatarbetet med fördel kan anpassas efter den målgrupp det riktar sig till. I kampanjer där invånare uppmuntras att välja gång och cykel framför bilen kan det till exempel vara bättre att fokusera på de positiva hälsoeffekterna som detta kan ge, snarare än de minskade utsläppen. För företag är det dessutom viktigt att de ekonomiska fördelarna av klimatengagemang lyfts fram; klimatsmarta företag kan locka kunder och ge konkurrensfördelar. Och för att få politikerna att säga ”ja, det här vill vi göra!” kan det vara en god idé att visa att klimatarbetet kan ge fler positiva effekter, gärna i form av sparade kronor och ören. Klimatarbetet kan alltså ge mer än bara minskade växthusgasutsläpp, och ge

© 2019. The Authors. The authors acknowledge the Air Quality Area of the Ministry for the Ecological Transition for providing hourly concentration data for the pollutants studied in the [1993-2017] period as well as the State Meteorological Agency (AEMET) for providing meteorological observations. We thank John Evans for his help with the analysis and interpretation of the mortality impacts associated with our weather penalties. We would also like to acknowledge the Real Colegio Complutense (RCC) for the Visiting Scholar Fellowship to support the stay of the corresponding author at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. The AIRTEC-CM research project (S2018/EMT-4329) partially funded this study. In addition, U.S. EPA grant numbers RD834798 and RD-835872 the U.S. EPA grant RD-834798-01 made this work possible. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the grantee and do not necessarily represent the official views of the U.S. EPA. Further, the U.S. EPA does not endorse the purchase of any commercial products or services mentioned in the publication. Finally, we want to acknowledge the anonymous reviewers whose valuable comments and discussion substantially contributed to improve our work., Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica. Dirección General de Biodiversidad y Calidad Ambiental, Agencia Española de Meteorología (AEMET), Real Colegio Complutense (RCC), Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, U.S. EPA, Depto. de Física de la Tierra y Astrofísica, Fac. de Ciencias Físicas, TRUE, pub

REDD+ was designed globally as a results-based instrument to incentivize emissions reduction from deforestation and forest degradation. Over 50 countries have developed strategies for REDD+, implemented pilot activities and/or set up forest monitoring and reporting structures, safeguard systems and benefit sharing mechanisms (BSMs), offering lessons on how particular ideas guide policy design. The implementation of REDD+ at national, sub-national and local levels required payments to filter through multiple governance structures and priorities. REDD+ was variously interpreted by different actors in different contexts to create legitimacy for certain policy agendas. Using an adapted 3E (effectiveness, efficiency, equity and legitimacy) lens, we examine four common narratives underlying REDD+ BSMs: (1) that results-based payment (RBP) is an effective and transparent approach to reducing deforestation and forest degradation; (2) that emphasis on co-benefits risks diluting carbon outcomes; (3) that directing REDD+ benefits predominantly to poor smallholders, forest communities and marginalized groups helps address equity; and (4) that social equity and gender concerns can be addressed by well-designed safeguards. This paper presents a structured examination of eleven BSMs from within and beyond the forest sector and analyses the evidence to variably support and challenge these narratives and their underlying assumptions to provide lessons for REDD+ BSM design. Our findings suggest that contextualizing the design of BSMs, and a reflexive approach to examining the underlying narratives justifying particular design features, is critical for achieving effectiveness, equity and legitimacy. Key policy insights A results-based payment approach does not guarantee an effective REDD+; the contexts in which results are defined and agreed, along with conditions enabling social and political acceptance, are critical. A flexible and reflexive approach to designing a benefit-sharing m

Climate change is undeniably the most urgent issue facing humanity. While the Paris Climate Agreement made progress in bringing about international collaboration, for Australia, outcomes at the national level remain uncertain. Nevertheless, the growing involvement of local governments in climate action is encouraging. Not only are the impacts most keenly experienced at this level, there is greater opportunity for control. This is particularly so as a range of non-climate-related co-benefits of climate change mitigation are available at this level. These co-benefits motivate governments to frame climate change mitigation in a positive light to operationalise broader economic, social, health and environmental benefits of low-carbon policies within the concept of sustainable development. Despite substantial evidence for co-benefits, their policy impact remains limited and under-developed. This thesis investigates local governments’ understandings of the ‘co-benefits approach’ in planning for climate change. It provides a systematic understanding of local policy context to plan, generate and purposively integrate co-benefits into the policy-decision-making processes. A methodology was developed to analyse the use of co-benefits in local government climate-related policies in New South Wales from July 2015 to May 2016. Investigation comprised three phases: a targeted on-line survey; review of councils’ climate-related policies; and in-depth interviewing of council officers. The on-line survey provides an informative overview of the factors that drive local action on climate change. The narratives generated from the interviews take this further revealing in-depth insights into policy-makers’ perceptions about the role of each factor, as well as an understanding of motivations for the uptake of co-benefits in policy. The thesis found that climate change mitigation is primarily driven by the dual objectives of reducing emissions and energy consumption. A focus on monetary c

Nature-based solutions (NBS) have recently received attention due to their potential ability to sustainably reduce hydro-meteorological risks, providing co-benefits for both ecosystems and affected people. Therefore, pioneering research has dedicated efforts to optimize the design of NBS, to evaluate their wider co-benefits and to understand promoting and/or hampering governance conditions for the uptake of NBS. In this article, we aim to complement this research by conducting a comprehensive literature review of factors shaping people’s perceptions of NBS as a means to reduce hydro-meteorological risks. Based on 102 studies, we identified six topics shaping the current discussion in this field of research: (1) valuation of the co-benefits (including those related to ecosystems and society); (2) evaluation of risk reduction efficacy; (3) stakeholder participation; (4) socio-economic and location-specific conditions; (5) environmental attitude, and (6) uncertainty. Our analysis reveals that concerned empirical insights are diverse and even contradictory, they vary in the depth of the insights generated and are often not comparable for a lack of a sound theoretical-methodological grounding. We, therefore, propose a conceptual model outlining avenues for future research by indicating potential inter-linkages between constructs underlying perceptions of NBS to hydro-meteorological risks.

Nature-Based Solutions for stormwater management on top of handling water should, ideally, deliver a multitude of other services to society; they are often seen used as a lever for transforming cities in a more livable, green, resilient and sustainable direction, and these measures should be acknowledged as part of the services delivered. In this study we assess the services that Nature-Based Solutions for stormwater management deliver with reference to targets and indicators from the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals; we also develop local, project level indicators that inform and are informed by the more broad Sustainable Development Goals indicators. We demonstrate through Danish cases ranging from lot to city scale that the proposed framework can help inform decision-makers about the sustainability of Nature-Based Solutions for stormwater management. Despite difficulties in matching local indicators to SDG indicators, this first attempt at an assessment framework provides insight on which services of a project help to work towards the Sustainable Development Goals and, if used in the planning phase, could facilitate the design of projects that work focused and informed towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.

An increased involvement of citizens in the management of European green spaces raises questions about its contributions to nature conservation. In this research, we study the effects of different types of active citizenship in green space. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods, we look at the benefits of 50 green self-governance practices in which citizens aim to realize, manage or protect green space in the Netherlands. While most of these practices contribute to nature conservation (80%) and/or the conservation of cultural landscapes (50%), our analysis shows that the benefits of green self-governance are much broader. This includes so called ‘co-benefits’, social, cultural and economic benefits such as the use function of green for human activity (78%), environmental education (88%) and social cohesion (50%). The benefits and co-benefits of green self-governance strongly depend on the type of practice. Using a typology of green self-governance, we show that a majority of practices focuses on direct benefits to nature conservation through hands-on activities and/or political actions. However, we also show that this focus is regularly combined with efforts to realize co-benefits. Practices with an explicit focus on co-benefits often also produce benefits - and vice-versa. In this way, co-benefits can provide a first step towards the realization of more direct benefits to nature conservation. Even so, there are also tensions between benefits and co-benefits, for example when an increase of recreation negatively affects biodiversity values or when ‘wild’ nature is being replaced by a cultivated garden. Relating to co-benefits can be an effective strategy for governments or environmental NGO's, but we have to be aware that the benefits generated by green self-governance are generally of a much smaller scale than those realized by ‘traditional’ managers of green space such as authorities.

This is the first structured review to identify and summarize research on lifestyle choices that improve health and have the greatest potential to mitigate climate change. Two literature searches were conducted on: (1) active transport health co-benefits, and (2) dietary health co-benefits. Articles needed to quantify both greenhouse gas emissions and health or nutrition outcomes resulting from active transport or diet changes. A data extraction tool (PRISMA) was created for article selection and evaluation. A rubric was devised to assess the biases, limitations and uncertainties of included articles. For active transport 790 articles were retrieved, nine meeting the inclusion criteria. For diet 2524 articles were retrieved, 23 meeting the inclusion criteria. A total of 31 articles were reviewed and assessed using the rubric, as one article met the inclusion criteria for both active transport and diet co-benefits. Methods used to estimate the effect of diet or active transport modification vary greatly precluding meta-analysis. The scale of impact on health and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) outcomes depends predominately on the aggressiveness of the diet or active transport scenario modelled, versus the modelling technique. Effective mitigation policies, infrastructure that supports active transport and low GHGE food delivery, plus community engagement are integral in achieving optimal health and GHGE outcomes. Variation in culture, nutritional and health status, plus geographic density will determine which mitigation scenario(s) best suit individual communities.

The Swedish construction and real estate sector has a significant impact on the total national carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption. Thus, energy efficient and environmentally friendly renovation measures of existing buildings in Sweden plays an important role in the attempt to mitigate the climate changes. By applying the methodology developed by the IEA EBC Annex 56, this study focused on optimization of renovation measures to define energy, environmentally and cost-efficient renovation measures of multi-family apartment buildings located in southern Sweden. The analyzed reference building presented in this study is a high-energy consuming multi-family apartment building constructed during the mid 60’s in the city of Malmö. The present study includes an investigation of the current energy need of the building and compares it with different renovation alternatives with different intervention levels. The renovation measures studied within this project includes modifications to the building envelope, the ventilation system as well as an implementation of an individual metering and price charging system of the domestic hot water. The main aim of this project was to analyze different renovation alternatives in order to determine their effects on the energy consumption in the building, their financial profitability and their effects on the overall environmental impact of the building. Moreover, an additional analysis was conducted in order to study the potential co-benefits that may arise from the implementation of the renovation measures. The secondary aim of the project was to try to find renovation measures that would successfully reduce the annual energy consumption of the studied reference building down to a level where the current energy requirements established by the Swedish building sector was fulfilled. The annual energy consumption of the studied reference building was assessed by the use of a dynamic energy simulation software. The effects of the, Sweden has set a national climate goal to reduce the specific energy use in buildings by 50% and becoming independent of fossil fuel energy until the year of 2050. The reasons why this climate goal was established was to avoid unnecessary energy costs in the Swedish society by becoming more independent to energy prices and to reduce environmental load in the Swedish society. A reduction of carbon dioxide emissions within the Swedish energy sector is inevitable in order to reach this goal. Energy efficiency is currently the cheapest and the most environmentally friendly solution to phase out fossil fuel energy and it creates opportunities to use power generated from wind turbines as well as solar energy. And the potential is huge. Sweden has currently the fifth highest energy use per capita in Europe; an unflattering top location for a country that likes to call itself a leading country in energy efficiency. The buildings and services sector currently accounts for nearly 40% of the total final energy use in Sweden, according to the Swedish Energy Agency. The greatest energy savings potential within the Swedish building sector lies in the buildings that were constructed during the ambitious public housing programme most commonly referred to as The Million Programme during the years from 1960 to 1975. The need for renovation of the multi-family apartment buildings constructed during the million programme are rather urgent. The buildings are worn down and sometimes on the verge of deterioration. Many of these buildings use twice as much energy compared to the multi-family apartment buildings that are being constructed today. However, the renovation work of these buildings poses a great challenge both economically and logistically but there is still a great potential for improving the energy efficiency of these buildings. In this project, different types of potential energy-efficient renovation measures of a well-represented multi-family apartment building of the Million

Sweden’s substantial building stock from the million programs is in need of renovations. These residential buildings were built without major attention to energy demand or architectural aesthetics. Until now, property owners have hesitated to carry out energy renovations due to the investment cost. The aim of this master thesis was to propose an energy-efficient renovation procedure whilst taking into consideration sufficient daylight conditions and choosing materials with less negative environmental impact. Moreover, substitute the monotonous facades with a more appealing exterior. The case study building was a typical three-storey lamella house from the million program years, located in Landskrona. The research methods of this report included primary research of on-site daylight measurements and observations, and research of literature studies. Furthermore, various simulation models within energy, carbon footprint, life cycle cost and daylight studies were developed and their results were analyzed to answer the research questions. A retrofit package that accounted for cost-effective measures included: new low energy windows, new prefab lightweight external walls on the main facades, and insulated basement walls and roof. As a result the energy use was reduced by 50% and the heating demand by 70%. The most significant energy saving came from the replacement of the old windows. The energy savings alone did not pay off the investment cost. However, the co-benefits, gained from this renovation should be weighted into the decision making. The co-benefit of sufficient daylight would lead to increased visual comfort that could further generate health benefits and increased productivity. The latter being especially important for people who work from home, as the flexible working hours are gaining popularity. Other tenants who would benefit from daylight in residential buildings the most, would be elderly; parents on maternity leave and kids; those on sick leave, among oth, Renovating residential buildings with environmental awareness! Global warming is not a “Chinese hoax” and approximately 98% scientists today believe that climate change is caused by humans. Old, leaky buildings usually constitutes for a large energy demand that is often distributed by non-environmentally friendly sources, in a global context! We believe that environmental renovation is one of the keys towards a greener future, controlling the damage humans have caused! Between 1965 and 1974 many houses were built in Sweden. They are referred to as the “million program” and today they are in great need of renovation. Nowadays, million program buildings are known for their monotonous box appearances and high energy demand. The environmental renovation method that is presented in this master thesis can potentially be applied to many more million program buildings, since they were built with similar construction! We worked with an million program building, situated in Landskrona. The house was a three-storey building that sooner rather than later would undergo a renovation. The thesis focused on following parts: daylight conditions, reducing the heating demand, evaluating the climate impact depending on insulation and load-bearing materials. Finally, we looked at the architectural quality and the total cost of all the suggested renovation measures. The envelope renovation would not only improve the aesthetics of the building but also make it more airtight. By doing the latter, the tenants would not need to use so much heating to compensate for the heat loss through the leaky envelope. They would also experience less draft and chilly floor caused by the thermal bridges at the balconies and windows. The new renovated apartments were increased in size and had a new, modern open-kitchen concept. All materials have an environmental impact, from gathering the raw material to manufacture it and finally taking care of the waste in the end of the materials life-cycle. Depending

Driving the global energy system into a sustainable path has emerged as a major societal concern and policy objective. This transition comes with various challenges and opportunities for a sustainable evolution affecting most of UN's Sustainable Development Goals. We therefore propose broadening the current metrics for sustainability in the energy system modeling field by industrial ecology techniques to account for a conclusive set of indicators. This is pursued by including a life cycle based sustainability assessment into the energy system model considering all relevant products and processes of the global supply chain. We identify three pronounced features: i) low-hanging fruit of impact mitigation requiring manageable economic effort; ii) embodied emissions of renewables cause increasing spatial redistribution of impact from direct, the place of burning fuel, to indirect, location of energy infrastructure production; iii) certain impact categories, in which overall more sustainable systems perform worse than the cost minimal system, require a closer look. In essence, this study makes the case for future energy system modeling to include the increasingly important global supply chain and broaden the metrics of sustainability further than cost and climate change relevant emissions.

Of the countries considering national-level policies for incentivizing reductions in forest-based greenhouse gas emissions (REDD+), some 25 are experiencing (or are emerging from) armed-conflicts. It has been hypothesized that the outcomes of the interactions between carbon-storage and peacebuilding efforts could result in either improved or worsened forest conservation and likewise increased or decreased conflict. Hence, for this study we explore potential interactions between forest carbon-storage and peacebuilding efforts, with Colombia as a case study. Spatial associations between biomass carbon and three conflict-related variables suggest that such interactions may exist. Nonetheless, while priority areas for carbon-focused conservation are presumably those at highest risks of deforestation, our research indicates that forests with lower risk of deforestation are typically those affected by armed-conflict. Our findings moreover highlight three possible roles played by Colombian forested municipalities in armed groups' military strategies: venues for battle, hideouts, and sources of natural resources to finance war.

Los procesos de transformación en la ciudad exigen un rápido atendimiento en las ciudades cada día en constante crecimiento ¿pero es posible alcanzar este crecimiento sin fin? ¿es posible dar el salto hacia un mejor futuro? Los nuevos sistemas de planeación contemporáneos en ciudades intermedias como Guadalajara y Curitiba, se han insertado bajo una dinámica en la que es posible lograr un campo de exploración de interés, al ser sede de proyectos dinámicos de importancia mundial. Al mismo tiempo de converger con grandes problemas de contaminación, desigualdad, altas demandas poblacionales, déficit de vivienda y problemáticas urbanas. Estas ciudades al estudiarlas apuntan a ser un instrumento de apoyo para lograr la verdadera sustentabilidad a través de un enfoque multifacético y polidimensional. Bajo el enfoque teórico y metodología sistémica de co-beneficios y análisis de caso crítico-comparativo. Este estudio puede lograr contribuir a nuevos análisis de política de vivienda en los sistemas de planeación., The transformational process in the city requires a fast assistance in the continuous growing cities but, is it possible to achieve this endless growth? Is it possible to step forward to a better future? The new planning contemporary systems in intermediate cities such as Guadalajara and Curitiba, have been able to be inserted under dynamic paths that makes it possible to be a field of interest, being the headquarters of dynamic and dual projects recognized over the world. But at the same time dealing with inequality, high demand, house density, lack of housing and urban problems. These cities aim to be a huge support instrument to achieve true sustainability through with a multifaceted and multi-dimensional approach. Under a theoretical approach and a systematic methodology of co-benefits and critic-comparative case analysis. This study may contribute to a new analysis of housing policy in planning systems.

Actions to reduce the combustion of fossil fuels often decrease GHG emissions as well as air pollutants and bring multiple benefits for improvement of energy efficiency, climate change, and air quality associated with human health benefits. The China's cement industry is the second largest energy consumer and key emitter of CO2 and air pollutants, which accounts for 7% of China's total energy consumption, 15% of CO2, and 14% of PM2.5, respectively. In this study, a state-of-the art modeling framework is developed that comprises a number of different methods and tools within the same platform (i.e. provincial energy conservation supply curves, the Greenhouse Gases and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies, ArcGIS, the global chemistry Transport Model, version 5, and Health Impact Assessment) to assess the potential for energy savings and emission mitigation of CO2 and PM2.5, as well as the health impacts of pollution arising from China's cement industry. The results show significant heterogeneity across provinces in terms of the potential for PM2.5 emission reduction and PM2.5 concentration, as well as health impacts caused by PM2.5. Implementation of selected energy efficiency measures would decrease total PM2.5 emissions by 2% (range: 1–4%) in 2020 and 4% (range: 2–8%) by 2030, compared to the baseline scenario. The reduction potential of provincial annual PM2.5 concentrations range from 0.03% to 2.21% by 2030 respectively, when compared to the baseline scenario. 10,000 premature deaths are avoided by 2020 and 2030 respectively relative to baseline scenario. The provinces of Henan and Hubei account for 43% of total avoided premature deaths, followed by Chongqing (9%) and Shanxi (10%), respectively. If only considering the energy saving benefits, 37% of energy efficiency measures are not cost effective. However, the co-benefits (including energy saving

We present a model comparison study that combines multiple integrated assessment models with a reduced-form global air quality model to assess the potential co-benefits of global climate mitigation policies in relation to the World Health Organization (WHO) goals on air quality and health. We include in our assessment, a range of alternative assumptions on the implementation of current and planned pollution control policies. The resulting air pollution emission ranges significantly extend those in the Representative Concentration Pathways. Climate mitigation policies complement current efforts on air pollution control through technology and fuel transformations in the energy system. A combination of stringent policies on air pollution control and climate change mitigation results in 40% of the global population exposed to PM levels below the WHO air quality guideline; with the largest improvements estimated for India, China, and Middle East. Our results stress the importance of integrated multisector policy approaches to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

In this paper, we present ten scenarios developed using the IMAGE2.4 framework (Integrated Model to Assess the Global Environment) to explore how different assumptions on future climate and air pollution policies influence emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. These scenarios describe emission developments in 26 world regions for the 21st century, using a matrix of climate and air pollution policies. For climate policy, the study uses a baseline resulting in forcing levels slightly above RCP6.0 and an ambitious climate policy scenario similar to RCP2.6. For air pollution, the study explores increasingly tight emission standards, ranging from no improvement, current legislation and three variants assuming further improvements. For all pollutants, the results show that more stringent control policies are needed after 2030 to prevent a rise in emissions due to increased activities and further reduce emissions. The results also show that climate mitigation policies have the highest impact on SO2 and NOX emissions, while their impact on BC and OC emissions is relatively low, determined by the overlap between greenhouse gas and air pollutant emission sources. Climate policy can have important co-benefits; a 10% decrease in global CO2 emissions by 2100 leads to a decrease of SO2 and NOX emissions by about 10% and 5%, respectively compared to 2005 levels. In most regions, low levels of air pollutant emissions can also be achieved by solely implementing stringent air pollution policies. The largest differences across the scenarios are found in Asia and other developing regions, where a combination of climate and air pollution policy is needed to bring air pollution levels below those of today.

As global energy consumption increased to 389 EJ by 2013, while the global energy-related CO2 emissions increased by over 50%, to 32.2 Gt in 2014. This growth is driven mostly by increased industrial production in developing countries. By now already two thirds of CO2 emissions budget for limiting global warming to 2°C by 2050 has already been used – in other words, we’ve already reached above 1°C warming in 2015. China’s energy consumption increased from 28.9 EJ in 1990 to 106 EJ in 2012, while the energy related CO2 emissions increased 4.2 times during the same period. Expectations are that China’s energy consumption will continue to grow. The potential of resource & energy efficiency improvement play a key role when tackling energy and environmental issues and related health impacts. Co-benefits of energy efficiency can provide a deeper understanding to overcome barriers in application of energy efficiency measures. However, current models are not capable of modelling the interaction of policy mixes and the co-benefits of energy efficiency improvement and emission mitigation on sub-sector level, which leads to the co-benefits of energy efficiency have not been systematically assessed in China. Based on this knowledge gaps, the objective of this dissertation is to assess the co-benefits of energy efficiency improvement and emission mitigation of CO2 and air pollutants in China, as well as the health impacts of pollution. For this purpose, a critical assessment about the advantages and weaknesses of current energy models for China are evaluated, including important co-benefits as reduced air pollutant emissions. Subsequently, a state-of-the art modelling framework is used that comprises a number of different methods and tools within the same platform (i.e. provincial energy conservation supply curves, Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies, ArcGIS, TM5, and Health Impact Assessment) to assess the potential for energy savings and emission mi