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Urban passenger land transport is an important source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally, but it is challenging to mitigate these emissions as this sector interacts with many other economic sectors. We develop the Climate change constrained Urban passenger Transport Integrated Life cycle assessment (CURTAIL) model to outline mitigation pathways of urban passenger land transport that are consistent with ambitious climate targets. CURTAIL uses the transport activity of exogenously defined modal shares to simulate the associated annual vehicle stocks, sales, and life cycle GHG emissions. It estimates GHG emission budgets that are consistent with global warming below 2 and 1.5 °C above preindustrial levels and seeks mitigation strategies to remain within the budgets. We apply it to a case study of Singapore, a city-state. Meeting a 1.5 °C target requires strong commitments in the transport and electricity sectors, such as reducing the motorized passenger activity, accelerating the deployment of public transit and of electrification, and decarbonizing the power generation system. Focusing on one mitigation technology or one mode of transport alone will not be sufficient to meet the target. Our novel model could be applied to any city to provide insights relevant to the design of urban climate change mitigation targets and policies.

In recent years, the removal of heavy metals from water and wastewater systems remains a challenging issue globally. Adsorption technology is widely used for the removal of heavy metals from aquatic systems due to several advantages including its simple operation, low cost and high efficiency. Biochar, which is an environmental benign and low-cost adsorbent, is increasingly used for remediation of heavy metal pollution in aquatic systems. This review critically analyzes recent developments on the biochar-based adsorptive removal of heavy metals from water and wastewater. Biochar is effective for the removal of several toxic metals (As, Cr and Mn) from groundwater and drinking water. Biochar also shows promising performance for the removal of various heavy metals (Cr, Pb, Cu, Cd and Zn) from wastewater. The heavy metal adsorption capacity of the biochar largely depends on the water/wastewater chemistry (pH, competing ions and initial concentrations of adsorbates), contact time between adsorbates and the adsorbent, adsorbent dose and environmental parameters (temperature). The adsorption isotherms and kinetics can be well explained by the Langmuir and pseudo-second order models, respectively. The key mechanisms which drive the heavy metal adsorption onto biochar include precipitation and ion exchange. Biochar-based adsorptive decontamination of heavy metal pollution is sustainable due to low environmental impacts, low energy consumption and low-costs. The key knowledge gaps and future research directions for improvement of biochar-based sorption capacities are highlighted. This review would help for the development of effective biochar-based adsorption technology for the removal of heavy metals from aquatic environments.

One of the key challenges in photocatalysis is the suppression of electron-hole pairs’ recombination, which reduces the photocatalytic degradation efficiency of promising materials. In this study, a novel heterostructured photocatalyst (In(OH)3/NGAs) was synthesized by coupling indium hydroxide (In(OH)3) with nitrogen-doped graphene aerogels (NGAs). A comprehensive evaluation of the photocatalytic degradation performance of In(OH)3/NGAs was conducted using para-nitrophenol (p-NP) as a model pollutant under visible light. Results show that impressive photocatalytic activities of In(OH)3/NGAs are mainly due to their strong synergistic effects of the heterojunction formed between In(OH)3and NGAs , and the active nitrogen doping of GAs. The synergistic effects result in a sizable bandgap and thus enhance the visible light absorption capability. The favorable formation of photo-generated holes and hydroxyl radicals is responsible for the efficient photocatalytic degradation of p-NP, leading to 98% removal of total organic carbon. Additionally, a comparative evaluation of the photodegradation performance of In(OH)3/NGAs with that of another indium-based heterostructured material (In2O3/g-C3N4(graphitic carbon nitride) shows the superior performance of the former photocatalyst which is attributed to its unique molecular configuration and chemical bonds. This work reveals how a rational combination of NGAs with In(OH)3can lead to efficient photocatalytic degradation of recalcitrant organic pollutants such as p-NP.

ABSTRACTLaser printers are one of the common indoor equipment in schools, offices, and various other places. Laser printers have recently been identified as a potential source of indoor air pollution. This study examines the characteristics of ultrafine particles (UFPs, diameter <100 nm) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from laser printers housed in a commercial printing center. The results indicated that apart from the printer type, the age of printers, and the number of pages printed, the characteristics of UFPs emitted from printers also depend on indoor ventilation conditions. It was found that at reduced ventilation rates of indoor air, there was a rise in the number concentration of UFPs in the printing center. Interestingly, the contribution of UFPs to the total number of submicrometer-sized particles was observed to be higher at a sampling point far away from the printer than the one in the immediate vicinity of the printer. Black carbon (BC) measurements showed a good correlation (rS= 0.82) with particles in the size range of 100–560 nm than those with diameters less than 100 nm (rS= 0.33 for 50–100 nm, and rS= −0.19 for 5.6–50 nm particles). Measurements of VOCs in the printing center showed high levels of m-, o-, and p-xylene, styrene, and ethylbenzenes during peak hours of printing. Although toluene was found in higher levels, its concentration decreased during peak hours compared to those during nonoperating hours of the printing center.IMPLICATIONSThis study reports the emission of ultrafine particles (UFPs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from laser printers in a commercial printing center. It was found that the number concentration of UFPs released was not only influenced by the printer-related parameters, but also by indoor ventilation conditions. The fraction of UFPs was high at lower air change rate and at distances away from printers, presumably due to the formation of new particles. The results imply that laser printers equipped with particle traps and high ventilation rates in the commercial printing center are needed to reduce the exposure of occupants to UFPs and thus the associated health risk.

ABSTRACTStationary diesel engines, especially diesel generators, are increasingly being used in both developing countries and developed countries because of increased power demand. Emissions from such engines can have adverse effects on the environment and public health. In this study, particulate emissions from a domestic stationary diesel generator running on ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) and biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil were characterized for different load conditions. Results indicated a reduction in particulate matter (PM) mass and number emissions while switching diesel to biodiesel. With increase in engine load, it was observed that particle mass increased, although total particle counts decreased for all the fuels. The reduction in total number concentration at higher loads was, however, dependent on percentage of biodiesel in the diesel-biodiesel blend. For pure biodiesel (B100), the reduction in PM emissions for full load compared to idle mode was around 9%, whereas for ULSD the reduction was 26%. A large fraction of ultrafine particles (UFPs) was found in the emissions from biodiesel compared to ULSD. Nearly 90% of total particle concentration in biodiesel emissions comprised ultrafine particles. Particle peak diameter shifted from a smaller to a lower diameter with increase in biodiesel percentage in the fuel mixture.IMPLICATIONSThere has been an increased usage of stationary diesel engines, especially backup power generators to meet the growing energy demand. Biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil has received increasing attention as an alternative fuel. However, data are only sparsely available in the literature on particulate emissions from stationary engines, fueled with blends of diesel and biodiesel. This study provides insights into the influence of waste-cooking-oil-derived biodiesel on engine performance and the particulate emissions from a stationary engine. The results of the study form a scientific basis to evaluate the impact of biodiesel emissions on the environment and human health.

AbstractIt is generally known that the solid char obtained from pyrolysis of scrap rubber tires can be used as an adsorbent for several applications such as wastewater treatment. In this study, scrap tires were first pyrolyzed under nitrogen (N2) or carbon dioxide (CO2) gas under various temperatures to produce char. The char was activated in situ by post-pyrolysis oxygenation (PPO) at different temperature ranges as soon as the pyrolysis process was completed. Elemental and spectroscopic analyses showed significant zinc content in the char after PPO. Batch-mode removal of aqueous copper (Cu) using the chars revealed that, for N2and CO2, the optimum condition for pyrolysis was at 550 °C and for activation was from 550 to 250 °C. Although CO2-pyrolyzed char had lower Cu and lead (Pb) removal than N2-pyrolyzed char, it had higher char yields. For both N2- and CO2-pyrolyzed char, activation with PPO improved their heavy metal removal efficiencies significantly compared with unactivated char. PPO chars had much faster removal rates and higher Cu removal compared with both pyrolyzed, unactivated char and commercial activated carbons.

AbstractAs part of a major study to investigate the indoor air quality in residential houses in Singapore, intensive aerosol measurements were made in an apartment in a multistory building for several consecutive days in 2004. The purpose of this work was to identify the major indoor sources of fine airborne particles and to assess their impact on indoor air quality for a typical residential home in an urban area in a densely populated country. Particle number and mass concentrations were measured in three rooms of the home using a real-time particle counter and a low-volume particulate sampler, respectively. Particle number concentrations were found to be elevated on several occasions during the measurements. All of the events of elevated particle concentrations were linked to indoor activities based on house occupant log entries. This enabled identification of the indoor sources that contributed to indoor particle concentrations. Activities such as cooking elevated particle number concentrations ≤2.05 × 105particles/cm3. The fine particles collected on Teflon filter substrates were analyzed for selected ions, trace elements, and metals, as well as elemental and organic carbon (OC) contents. To compare the quality of air between the indoors of the home and the outdoors, measurements were also made outside the home to obtain outdoor samples. The chemical composition of both outdoor and indoor particles was determined. Indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios suggest that certain chemical constituents of indoor particles, such as chloride, sodium, aluminum, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, titanium, vanadium, zinc, and elemental carbon, were derived through migration of outdoor particles (I/O<1 or ≈1), whereas the levels of others, such as nitrite, nitrate, sul-fate, ammonium, cadmium, chromium, nickel, lead, and OC, were largely influenced by the presence of indoor sources (I/O >1).

AbstractAn improved ion chromatographic (IC) method has been developed for the separation of nitrate in filter extracts in the presence of high concentrations of nitrite. This analytical method was successfully used for an indirect measurement of ozone (O3) in outdoor and indoor air, following its collection using a nitrite-impregnated passive sampler. The limit of detection and the limit of quantification, using the modified IC method, were 6 μg l-1(3σ) and 20 μg l-1(10σ), respectively. Improved detection limits and low baseline noise were obtained with the use of eluent generator and high-capacity ion exchange column. The optimized method was used for assessing O3concentration in both indoor and outdoor environments of 28 child care centers (CCCs) located in different parts of Singapore. The O3concentrations ranged from 0.1 to 11.95 parts per billion (ppb) in indoor and from 3.2 to 21.7 ppb in outdoor environments during the study period. It was found that, among the CCCs investigated in this study, air-conditioned CCCs and those located in close proximity to traffic emissions had significantly lower O3concentrations indoors.

Food cooking using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has received considerable attention in recent years since it is an important source of particulate air pollution in indoor environments for non-smokers. Exposure to organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contained in particles is of particular health concern since some of these compounds are suspected carcinogens. It is therefore necessary to chemically characterize the airborne particles emitted from gas cooking to assess their possible health impacts. In this work, the levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and 16 priority PAHs were determined in three different ethnic commercial kitchens, specifically Chinese, Malay and Indian food stalls, where distinctive cooking methods were employed. The mass concentrations of PM2.5and PAHs, and the fraction of PAHs in PM2.5were the highest at the Malay stall (245.3 μg m−3, 609.0 ng m−3, and 0.25%, respectively), followed by the Chinese stall (201.6 μg m−3, 141.0 ng m−3, and 0.07%), and the Indian stall (186.9 μg m−3, 37.9 ng m−3, and 0.02%). This difference in the levels of particulate pollution among the three stalls may be attributed to the different cooking methods employed at the food stalls, the amount of food cooked, and the cooking time, although the most sensitive parameter appears to be the predominant cooking method used. Frying processes, especially deep-frying, produce more air pollutants, possibly due to the high oil temperatures used in such operations. Furthermore, it is found that frying, be it deep-frying at the Malay stall or stir-frying at the Chinese stall, gave rise to an abundance of higher molecular weight PAHs such as benzo[b]fluoranthene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene and benzo[g,h,i]perylene whereas low-temperature cooking, such as simmering at the Indian stall, has a higher concentration of lower molecular weight PAHs. In addition, the correlation matrices and diagnostic ratios of PAHs were calculated to determine the markers of gas cooking. To evaluate the potential health threat due to inhalation exposure from the indoor particulate pollution, excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) was also calculated for an exposed individual. The findings suggest that cooking fumes in the three commercial kitchens pose adverse health effects.

Water soluble organic compounds (WSOC) in airborne particulate matter (PM) have received considerable attention in recent years due to their abundance and their importance in atmospheric processes. The analysis of WSOC is necessary for quantifying the relative contribution of individual organic compounds to the total WSOC mass. In the present work, we evaluated the performance of a microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method for the determination of WSOC in PM and compared the data with those of a conventional ultrasonic extraction (USE). The experimental results showed that the MAE method requires a shorter extraction time (5 min) compared to USE. The isolated water-soluble organic fraction of PM was subsequently analyzed using ion chromatography (IC) for low molecular weight organic acids. The rapid MAE method was used in conjunction with IC for the analysis of organic acids in PM samples, collected from different sources.