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In a wide range of industries, noise-induced hearing loss remains one of the most prevalent occupational problems. This study aimed to assess the noise exposure level and associated factors of hearing loss among textile workers in Yangon Region, Myanmar.

A survey of the coverage, distribution and the factors associated with use of influenza and pneumococcal vaccines among general practitioners (GPs) in primary care and in hospital settings was carried out in 53 general practices in Scotland taking part in the ‘Continuous Morbidity Recording’ (CMR) programme. The annual vaccine distribution increased substantially among 53 general practices from 1993 to 1999 and in Scotland as a whole from 1984 to 1999. From the questionnaire, overall coverage was 43% (95% CI 38–48) for influenza vaccine in the 2000–1 season and 13% (95% CI 9–16) for pneumococcal vaccine in the last 5 year period, in high-risk patients recommended for these vaccines by the Department of Health (DoH). Influenza vaccine coverage was highest in the elderly (65 years of age and above) at 62% (95% CI 59–74). Although pneumococcal vaccination is not currently recommended for all elderly, coverage of this vaccine was also higher in this group (22%, 95% CI 16–29). In the majority of patients (influenza vaccine, 98% and pneumococcal vaccine, 94%), vaccination was carried out in general practice. Only 2% of patients had received pneumococcal vaccination in a hospital setting. The level of influenza and pneumococcal vaccination varied with the level of deprivation. Most GPs considered that the responsibility for influenza and pneumococcal vaccination lay with them. Forty-five percent of GPs reported having a written policy with set target for influenza vaccination and 11% for pneumococcal vaccination.

A review of the epidemiology of invasive pneumococcal disease in Scotland was carried out using data from laboratory-based systems during the period 1988–99. This comprised 5456 (90·8%) isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae from blood, 467 (7·8%) from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and 84 (1·4%) from other sterile sites. The mean annual incidence of invasive disease was 9·8/105 population (9·0/105 for bacteraemia and 0·8/105 for meningitis). Invasive disease was highest in children <2 years of age and in the elderly 65 years (44·9/105 and 28·4/105 population in these age groups respectively). The highest incidence of pneumococcal meningitis, 11·8/105 persons occurred in children <2 years of age. Males had a higher incidence of pneumococcal bacteraemia and meningitis than females (male∶female = 1·2∶1 for bacteraemia (RR = 1·17, 95% CI 1·11, 1·24) and 1·5∶1 for meningitis (RR = 1·41, 95% CI 1·18, 1·70)). Pneumococcal disease was highest in winter periods and coincided with influenza activity. The proportion of penicillin and erythromycin non-susceptible isolates increased from 4·2% in 1992 to 12·6% in 1999 and from 5·6% in 1994 to 16·3% in 1999 respectively. Our data confirm the substantial and increasing disease burden from pneumococcal disease and rise in prevalence of antibiotic non-susceptibility among pneumococci in Scotland. Continued surveillance of groups at increased risk for pneumococcal disease and the antibiotic susceptibility and serotype distribution of isolates are important to develop appropriate policies for the prevention of pneumococcal disease in Scotland.

We examined the serological characteristics of 774 invasive meningococcal isolates collected through an active laboratory-based surveillance system in Scotland from 1994 to 1999. Of these, 72–73% of isolates were tested for susceptibility to several antimicrobial agents. Meningococci with high-level resistance to sulphadiazine had a prevalence of 10% and incidence of 0·22 per 100000 population. High-level resistance to penicillin and other antibiotics was not detected. The prevalence of moderate penicillin resistant meningococci was 8·3%. There was no increase in moderate penicillin resistant meningococcal isolates during the study period, but there were temporal and geographic variations. The estimated incidence of moderate penicillin resistant meningococci was 0·15 per 100000 population. High and low incidence of moderate penicillin resistant meningococci appeared to correlate with the number of doses of penicillin prescribed in some geographic locations. The majority of moderate penicillin resistant isolates belonged to serogroups B (52·2%) and C (39·2%). However, the prevalence of moderate penicillin resistance in serogroup W135 was substantially higher (51·7%) than serogroups B (7·8%) and C (7·6%). Serogroup W135 accounted for a higher proportion of moderate penicillin resistance (8·7%) than disease (1%). There was no predominant penicillin resistant serotype/subtype within any serogroup. Constant surveillance is necessary to monitor the emergence and spread of resistance and to guide appropriate public health interventions in preventing drug resistant meningococci.

We reviewed laboratory data on non-invasive pneumococcal isolates reported from all diagnostic laboratories in Scotland during the period 1988–99. Of 4491 isolates from hospitalized patients, 654 (64·7%) were from sputum, 79 (7·8%) from the nasopharynx and 278 (27·5%) from other superficial sites. The serogroups included in the 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine caused 96–9% of all non-invasive disease in all age groups. The 7-, 9-, and 11-valent conjugated vaccine serogroups were responsible for 87–94%, 85–93%, 74–81% and 75–84% of non-invasive disease respectively in age groups <2 years, 5 years, 65 years and all ages. The coverage of non-susceptible penicillin and erythromycin non-invasive isolates was >99% and >95% with the 23-valent polysaccharide and 7–11-valent conjugate vaccines respectively. The eight most common serogroups were 23, 9, 6, 19, 14, 3, 15 and 11 (in descending order). The serogroups associated with antimicrobial resistance in non-invasive disease were similar to those found in invasive disease. The finding of a similar serogroup distribution in both invasive and non-invasive disease (regardless of the site of clinical isolate), is consistent with serogroups colonizing non-sterile sites and having the potential to invade. The availability of conjugated vaccines reinforces the importance of systematic surveillance to determine accurately and regularly the coverage of pneumococcal serogroups and types causing both invasive and non-invasive disease.