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International and Australian climate change adaptation research has identified conceptual frameworks, definitions and theories to support adaptation policy, planning and decision-making. However, there is more limited research on the practical experience and challenges of implementing adaptation. This article draws on the experience of 20 state, regional and local adaptation initiatives across a range of sectors, scales and locations in Australia, to identify the challenges faced by adaptation practitioners and decision-makers, and some emerging good practices. The review finds that many critical challenges to adaptation are common across the range of adaptation initiatives, and that there are significant interdependencies between these challenges. They should therefore be addressed in any significant adaptation initiative, at an early stage and as a related set of issues. The review also identifies potential national initiatives to enhance adaptation capabilities, and a number of policy issues beyond the jurisdiction of local stakeholders. These have been progressed as part of a broader agenda to support adaptation capability development within Australia, and to strengthen the linkages between adaptation practice, policy and research.

AbstractThe influence of a warm chlorine wash on the microbiological quality and shelf–life of ready–to–use (RTU) shredded iceberg lettuce was examined using the electronic nose (EN) and culture methods. There was a significant difference in psychrotrophic counts (P<0.0001) of warm chlorine (100 ppm) washed lettuce at 47 ± 2C for 30 s, 60 s, and 180 s exposure from days 1 to 10 of storage at 4C compared with cold chlorine (100 ppm) washed lettuce at 4 ± 1C for 30 s. There were no significant differences in psychrotrophic counts between wash treatments of 30 s and 60 s during 17 days storage (P < 0.05). The EN detected initially high levels of volatiles in this group compared with cold treatment. Lettuce samples treated with cold or warm chlorine wash water showed no differences in the presence/absence or levels of Listeria monocytogenes. The warm chlorine washed lettuce samples were rated acceptable upon sensory evaluation up to day 14.

The inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A and Salmonella typhimurium in synthetic egg washwater was studied under varying conditions of temperature (38°C to 46°C), egg solids (0%, 2%), pH (9·5 to 10·5) and chlorine concentration (0 to 10 µg ml^-1 [ppm]) using a full factorial design. Survival was measured as the logarithm of the time required for a 4-log reduction in viable counts. Both pathogens were significantly affected by temperature and the presence of egg, while the survival of S. typhimurium was significantly reduced by pH and chlorine alone. Both pathogens were affected by second order interactions involving egg and either pH or chlorine. Egg was the most significant factor, reducing the survival of L. monocytogenes while promoting the survival of S. typhimurium. Two linear equations were derived to describe the decrease in survival of L. monocytogenes and S. typhimurium as a function of the 4 factors. These equations were used to estimate conditions which would reduce the time for a 4-log reduction in viable counts to &lt;30 min. In the absence of egg solids, chlorine (20 µg ml^-1) can be used to control L. monocytogenes and S. typhimurium using moderate temperature (42°C) and pH (10·5). When egg is present in wash water, increased temperature (47·4°C) and pH (10·8) are required. Copyright 1994, 1999 Academic Press

Bifidobacterium adolescentis ATCC 15703, B. longum ATCC 15707, and B. thermophilum ATCC 25525 were examined for the ability to grow with fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) as carbohydrate sources. The three species produced cell-associated ß-fructosidases (inulinases) capable of hydrolysing FOS. Maximum activity was obtained with short-chain FOS with degrees of polymerization (DP) of between three and five (neosugars). The B. thermophilum inulinase was induced by inulin, a long-chain FOS with DP=35, while the enzymes from the other two strains were constitutive. Production of inulinase by all three strains was regulated by catabolite repression. Inulinase activity of the three Bifidobacterium spp. was similar when grown with 0.5% inulin as the carbohydrate source; however, B. thermophilum grew much more rapidly. All three strains utilized crude Jerusalem artichoke flour (JAF) as a carbohydrate source, suggesting that JAF might have commercial application as a food or feed additive to stimulate bifidobacteria in the gut.

Summary MKES Tools is a microbial kinetics expert system for developing food production systems and assessing product safety. The specific information required as input are: (1) a flowchart of the production system, (2) the factors affecting the survival and growth of food-borne pathogens and (3) the ranges of variation for each factor's parameters. With this information, MKES Tools simulates the growth and survival of pathogenic microorganisms when subjected to many different factor/parameter situations. The responses obtained are then used to estimate the significance of each factor's parameters.

A mutant of Pseudomonas fluorescens strain B52 deficient in the synthesis of the fluorescent pigment, pyoverdine, was isolated. Absence of pyoverdine and other siderophores was confirmed by gel filtration, a specific siderophore assay, and inhibition studies with the iron chelator EDDA. Both parent and mutant synthesized additional outer membrane proteins in response to iron-limitation. Mutant cells cultured in the absence of iron(III) accumulated 55Fe-labeled pyoverdine. The mutant produced extracellular proteinase normally on various media, but was deficient in lipase secretion. Growth of the mutant with partially-purified pyoverdine resulted in a 2.5-fold stimulation of lipase secretion. The mutant grew poorly in deferrated medium; however, the addition of iron(III) stimulated growth. Proteinase secretion in deferrated medium was stimulated over a narrow range of iron(III) concentration, while lipase secretion was only slightly affected. The data suggest that separate regulatory mechanisms exist for the control of proteinase and lipase secretion by iron(III).

To more fully assess the health hazard posed byListeria monocytogenesin liver pa^te´ products, multi-factorial design experiments were conducted to examine the influence of temperature (4 and 10°C), NaCl (1 and 3%), sodium nitrite (0 and 200 ppm), sodium erythrobate (0 and 550 ppm) and spice (0 and 0.4%), on the growth of the organism on experimental pa^te´. A total of 16 different liver pa^te´ formulations made experimentally were stored at 4 and 10°C for various periods of time. Analysis of variance was used to determine the effect of the various factors on maximum growth rate.L. monocytogeneswas able to grow well, with temperature being the only factor exerting an effect on the growth rate. After transforming by natural logarithms, analysis of variance of the lag phase gave a more complicated model, but with temperature again being the only factor demonstrating a main effect. Comparisons of the experimental data were made against the modelling data from the US Department of Agriculture's Pathogen Modelling Program (PMP). Mean experimental growth rate was significantly lower than the mean predicted value. Mean experimental lag-phase time was slightly, but not significantly, longer than the mean predicted value. Some formulations gave rise to lag-phase times shorter than those predicted by the PMP, a situation which could be hazardous. Additional comparisons done with pa^te´ modelling data produced by researchers in New Zealand also showed some discrepancies. Thus, it may not be possible to accurately predict the growth of pathogens on individual foods when using one model.

Mechanical disruption of cells of Methanobacteriumstrain G2R resulted in a 78-fold increase in the specific activity of the hydrogenase as measured by the benzyl viologen reduction assay. Approximately 50% of the activity in disrupted cells was associated with the particulate fraction. Between 69 and 85% of the particulate hydrogenase was released by treatment with the detergents Triton X-100, deoxycholate, and octyl-β-d-glucopyranoside. The relative electrophoretic mobilities of the soluble hydrogenases were identical, indicating that G2R possessed a single electrophoretically distinct hydrogenase. The particulate enzyme was inactivated by oxygen and could be reactivated with dithionite or glucose plus glucose oxidase. The enzyme had a pH optimum of 8.5 and resisted heating at 52 but not 77°C. A number of nonspecific dyes, flavin adenine dinucleotide, and riboflavin 5′-phosphate were effective electron acceptors; oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, and factor 420 were apparently not reduced. Hydrogenase activity was inhibited by p-hydroxymercuribenzoate, cyanide, chloroform, and chloramphenicol. The molecular weight of the solubilized enzyme was 900,000, with subunits of molecular weights 38,500, 50,700, and approximately 80,000. It is suggested that, in intact cells of G2R, the large hydrogenase complex is loosely bound to the cell wall or membrane.

Attention is focussed on several two-tensor theories (f-g, g-h, 0–1) which differ only in their choice of interaction term. Different properties, which some authors claim to be desirable, are then imposed on a general interaction term in order to see to what extent these properties can be used to characterize a particular theory. It is found that only one of these theories, thef-gtheory, cannot be specified uniquely in this manner. Si concentra l’attenzione su molte teorie bitensoriali (f-g, g-h, 0–1), che differiscono solo per la loro scelta di termini di interazione. Si applicano a un temine di interazione generale differenti proprietà, che molti autori sostengono essere desiderabili, per vedere a quale scopo queste proprietà possono essere usate per caratterizzare una particolare teoria. Si trova che solo una di queste teorie, la teoriaf-g, può essere definita unicamente in questo modo. Анализируются двух-тензорные теории (f-g, g-h, 0–1), которые отличаются только по выбору члена взаиомдействия. Различные свойства, которые являются желательными, как считают некоторые авторы, накладываются на общий член взаимодействия, чтобы видетя в какой степени эти свойства могут быть использованы для характеристики определенной теории. Обнаружено, что только одна из этих теорий,f-gтеория, не может быть определена однозначно этим методом.

Factors associated with the production of extracellular lipase and proteinase by Pseudomonas fluorescens B52 during the late-log, early-stationary phase of grown were examined. Active lipase production by resting cell suspensions was observed when cells were harvested during the log phase (A600 of 0.3–0.9) Resting suspensions of younger cells (A600<0.1) synthesized lipase after a significant lag. Addition of cells of the proteinase-and lipasedeficient mutant P. fluorescens RM14 to B52 cells at low density resulted in stimulation of lipase and proteinase production. Similar results were found using cell-free culture fluid of RM14. Gel filtration on Biogel P2 revealed that the stimulatory factor co-chromatographed with the iron(III) siderophore, pyoverdine. Partially purified pyoverdine stimulated enzyme synthesis at a concentration of 6 µM while having no effect on activity of preformed enzyme. Production of pyoverdine and extracellular enzymes was also stimulated by transferrin, a strong iron(III) binding protein. Growth of B52 in deferrated media was limited to 27% of that found with untreated media. Maximum pyoverdine, proteinase and lipase synthesis was obtained at a final iron(III) concentration of 5.75 µM. Growth was maximal in 8.75 µM iron(III) while synthesis of pyoverdine, proteinase and lipase was reduced to 3.6, 6.6 and 30% respectively in 23.75 µM iron(III). Lipase activity in cell-free culture fluid was slightly inhibited by the addition of up to 400 µM iron(III) while proteinase activity was unaffected. In dilute cell suspensions, lipase synthesis was more sensitive to iron(III) than was proteinase (50% inhibition at 1.6 µM and a maximum of 40% inhibition at 5.0 µM, respectively). In the case of lipase, added pyoverdine was able to partially protect enzyme production from the effects of iron(III). The results are consistent with a role for iron(III) in the regulation of extracellular lipase and proteinase synthesis by P. fluorescens.

Bis(carbomethoxy)methylides derived from thianthrene 5,5-dioxide and 2,7-dichlorothianthrene 5,5-dioxide exhibit hindered S+ - C- bond rotation. Variable temperature NMR studies are described for these ylides as well as 9,9-dimethylthioxanthenium bis(carbomethoxy)methylide. With coalescence temperatures of ≈30°C (200 MHz), all have δG‡ ≈ 15 kcal/mol.

Scalar densities which are concomitants of the metric tensor, a symmetric affine connection and its first derivative, and the derivative of a vector field are examined. Rather simple demands are imposed on the corresponding Euler-Lagrange expressions. It is found that the associated field equations reduce essentially to the Einstein-Maxwell field equations.