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The development of water-splitting photocatalysts capable of generating green hydrogen (H2) from water and sunlight is crucial for achieving carbon neutrality. Further enhancement of the photocatalytic water-splitting activity is essential to realizing this objective. Photocatalysts with specific exposed crystal facets can facilitate efficient charge separation of electrons/holes, thereby achieving high activity for water splitting. However, there have been no reports of ultrafine (∼1 nm) cocatalysts being loaded onto specific crystal facets of photocatalysts, despite cocatalysts being the actual reaction sites for water splitting. This study establishes a novel method for achieving facet-selective loading of ultrafine H2-evolution cocatalysts onto the {100} facets, which are the H2-evolution facets, of a strontium titanate photocatalyst. The resulting photocatalyst exhibits the highest apparent quantum yield achieved to date for strontium titanate. This research holds the potential to further improve various types of advanced photocatalysts and is expected to accelerate the transition to carbon neutrality.

In Japan, the concept of coastal structure design was drastically changed after the Great East Japan Earthquake. In the design of breakwaters, a "resilient" structure is required to prevent a breakwater from fall over damage due to scouring of rubble mound and seabed by tsunami overflows, by installing an additional rubble mound behind the breakwater. The particle method is useful for numerical simulation of large deformation problems treated in coastal engineering. DualSPHysics is an open-source fluid simulation code based on smoothed-particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method and is capable of dealing with a large number of particles because it can track the behavior of particles using GPUs. Few studies have simulated the movement of armour blocks behind a breakwater during tsunami overflow. This study conducts a numerical simulation to reproduce and clarify the scattering process of the armour blocks on the additional rubble mound behind a breakwater during tsunami overflow using DualSPHysics. The applicability of the numerical model is verified by comparing the performance of two types of armour blocks. The simulation model could reproduce the scattering process by using block data that considers the influence of boundary conditions. The performance diagram of the armour blocks was almost identical to the hydraulic experiment results, indicating the validity of the SPH model. The characteristics of the stability of the armour blocks against tsunami overflow could be clarified by analyzing the fluid force acting on the block.

During the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami of 2011, enormous coastal levees collapsed as a result of tsunami overflows. Concrete-covered levees, where concrete blocks are used to protect levees made of soil, showed a specific failure mode in which back slope blocks and internal soils were dislodged. Although several hydraulic experiments have been conducted in an attempt to understand the failure mechanism, the complexity of the failure requires that both hydro-dynamical and geotechnical points of view be taken into account for a deeper understanding. This study uses a centrifuge to identify the failure behavior of levees from those points of view. The centrifuge can reproduce the stress, water pressure, and overflow velocity of the prototype-scale ground. Overflowing at sufficient time periods was produced in the centrifuge by generating differences in water height for seaside and landside areas. The test results showed that the levees collapsed due to a combination of the effect of water flow on the back slope and seepage inside the levees. In addition, the effectiveness of several proposed countermeasures for preventing collapse was confirmed.

In this paper, the characterization of a protic ionic liquid, diethylmethylammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate ([dema][TfO]), as a proton conductor for a fuel cell and the fabrication of a membrane-type fuel cell system using [dema][TfO] under nonhumidified conditions at intermediate temperatures are described in detail. In terms of physicochemical and electrochemical properties, [dema][TfO] exhibits high activity for fuel cell electrode reactions (i.e., the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR)) at a Pt electrode, and the open circuit voltage (OCV) of a liquid fuel cell is 1.03 V at 150 °C, as has reported in ref 27. However, diethylmethylammonium bis(trifluoromethane sulfonyl)amide ([dema][NTf2]) has relatively low HOR and ORR activity, and thus, the OCV is ca. 0.7 V, although [dema][NTf2] and [dema][TfO] have an identical cation ([dema]) and similar thermal and bulk-transport properties. Proton conduction occurs mainly via the vehicle mechanism in [dema][TfO] and the proton transference number (t+) is 0.5−0.6. This relatively low t+appears to be more disadvantageous for a proton conductor than for other electrolytes such as hydrated sulfonated polymer electrolyte membranes (t+= 1.0). However, fast proton-exchange reactions occur between ammonium cations and amines in a model compound. This indicates that the proton-exchange mechanism contributes to the fuel cell system under operation, where deprotonated amines are continuously generated by the cathodic reaction, and that polarization of the cell is avoided. Six-membered sulfonated polyimides in the diethylmethylammonium form exhibit excellent compatibility with [dema][TfO]. The composite membranes can be obtained up to a [dema][TfO] content of 80 wt % and exhibit good thermal stability, high ionic conductivity, and mechanical strength and gas permeation comparable to those of hydrated Nafion. H2/O2fuel cells prepared using the composite membranes can successfully operate at temperatures from 30 to 140 °C under nonhumidified conditions, and a current density of 250 mA cm−2is achieved at 120 °C. The protic ionic liquid and its composite membrane are a possible candidate for an electrolyte of a H2/O2fuel cell that operates under nonhumidified conditions.

The transport properties of ionic liquid (IL)/sulfonated polyimide (SPI) composite membranes for CO2separation were explored in relation to their nanostructures. 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide ([C4mim][NTf2]), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([C4mim]PF6), and 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide ([P14][NTf2]) were selected as the ILs. These composite membranes enable favorable CO2separation and superior mechanical properties. SPI is plasticized by the IL, which induces a decrease in the elastic modulus; however, due to the formation of bicontinuous nanostructures of IL-rich and SPI-rich phases, a modulus of >10 MPa is retained even with the incorporation of 75 wt % IL. [C4mim][NTf2] and [C4mim]PF6exhibit stronger plasticization effects on SPI than [P14][NTf2]. The diffusion coefficients of CO2and N2, which were measured by the time-lag method, abruptly increase with increasing IL content in the [C4mim][NTf2]/SPI composite membranes, which coincided with a change from an isolated to a continuous IL-rich phase structure. On the other hand, the selective solubility of CO2in the [C4mim][NTf2]/SPI composite membranes exhibits no relation with the IL content. Consequently, the permeation coefficient (PCO2) of the membranes increases with increasing IL content without decreasing the separation factor (αCO2/N2), showing PCO2= 431 barrer and αCO2/N2= 30 at 30 °C.

In this study, earthquake rupture models for future mega-thrust earthquakes in the Nankai–Tonankai subduction zone are developed by incorporating the main characteristics of inverted source models of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. These scenario ruptures also account for key features of the national tsunami source model for the Nankai–Tonankai earthquake by the Central Disaster Management Council of the Japanese Government. The source models capture a wide range of realistic slip distributions and kinematic rupture processes, reflecting the current best understanding of what may happen due to a future mega-earthquake in the Nankai–Tonankai Trough, and therefore are useful for conducting probabilistic tsunami hazard and risk analysis. A large suite of scenario rupture models is then used to investigate the variability of tsunami effects in coastal areas, such as offshore tsunami wave heights and onshore inundation depths, due to realistic variations in source characteristics. Such investigations are particularly valuable for tsunami hazard mapping and evacuation planning in municipalities along the Nankai–Tonankai coast.

A series of composite membranes (SPI-NTf2and SPI-PF6) consisting of a sulfonated polyimide (SPI) and an ionic liquid (IL), either [C4mim][NTf2] or [C4mim]PF6, where [C4mim] and [NTf2] stand for 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium and bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide, respectively, were prepared, and their thermal, mechanical and gas (carbon dioxide (CO2) and N2) permeation properties were systematically investigated. The ILs functioned as plasticizers of the SPI, making the composite membranes softer (lower Young’s modulus and larger elongation at break). However, SPI-NTf2(75), containing 75 wt% [C4mim][NTf2], still exhibited a Young’s modulus higher than 10 MPa, which is much higher than that reported for common IL/polymer composites. The SPI membrane behaved as a gas barrier membrane; however, the addition of IL greatly enhanced gas permeability. Consequently, SPI-NTf2(75) exhibited CO2permeability () of 412 Barrer at 30 °C and selectivity against N2() of 27. The SPI-PF6composite membranes showed similar behavior; however, gas permeability exhibited by these membranes was lower than that exhibited by the SPI-NTf2composite membranes. In permeation tests under mixed-gas conditions, the value decreased than that under single-gas conditions, whereas increased, and decreased (from the range 29−27 to 12–16).

The purpose of this paper was to use a Bayesian approach to compare the relative change in muscle size between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound measured muscle thickness (MTH) following 6 weeks of concentric and eccentric blood flow restricted exercise. Changes at each site were as follows: concentric 50% site (MRI: 10.2%, MTH: 8.7%), concentric 10 cm site (MRI: 12%, MTH: 4.5%), eccentric 50% site (MRI: −1.7%, MTH: 2.6%), and eccentric 10 cm site (MRI: 5.2%, MTH: 0.5%). When testing the difference between estimates using a default prior of 0.707, we provided evidence that the estimate at the 50% site of the concentric arm was similar between ultrasound and MRI [Median % (95% credible interval): −1.1 (−8.2, 5.8)]. However, evidence for other sites suggested differences or a degree of uncertainty. Both methods produce similar conclusions about the presence of growth but the magnitude of that change appears different at most sites.

Tibial pilon fractures are difficult to treat due to articular comminution and soft-tissue injuries caused by high-energy trauma. Open reduction and internal fixation is a commonly used method of treatment. However, it has a high risk of infection and soft-tissue complications due to the extensive detachment of soft tissue. We report on a case with a tibial pilon fracture and soft-tissue necrosis that we treated using limited internal fixation combined with a circular external fixator (LIFCEF) and reverse sural artery flap (RSAF) as part of an orthoplastic approach within the orthopedic surgery department alone, which obtained good results. A 51-year-old man was injured in a motorcycle accident and transported to a nearby hospital. X-rays at the time of injury showed tibial pilon fractures (AO Foundation/Orthopedic Trauma Association 43c3.3, Ruedi–Allgower: Type III). Soft-tissue necrosis with blisters on the medial side of the lower leg (AO soft-tissue classification: IC3-MT1-NV1) was observed. In addition, the patient was referred to our hospital on day 10 of the injury. LIFCEF was chosen for treating the fracture because plate fixation was accompanied by the risk of plate exposure, soft-tissue complications, and an increased skin defect area, and RSAF was chosen to reconstruct the soft tissue defect. Four years after the surgery, the American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Score was 92 points. X-ray alignment evaluation showed mLDTA 93° and aADTA 91°. Stage 2 arthrosis was present according to the Takakura ankle osteoarthritis classification, but the patient was able to walk without pain. Tibial pilon fractures are difficult to treat due to articular comminution and soft-tissue injuries caused by high-energy trauma. The timing and choice of treatment are crucial concerning the soft tissue.

The sensitivity and variability of spatial tsunami inundation footprints in coastal cities and towns due to a megathrust subduction earthquake in the Tohoku region of Japan are investigated by considering different fault geometry and slip distributions. Stochastic tsunami scenarios are generated based on the spectral analysis and synthesis method with regards to an inverted source model. To assess spatial inundation processes accurately, tsunami modeling is conducted using bathymetry and elevation data with 50 m grid resolutions. Using the developed methodology for assessing variability of tsunami hazard estimates, stochastic inundation depth maps can be generated for local coastal communities. These maps are important for improving disaster preparedness by understanding the consequences of different situations/conditions, and by communicating uncertainty associated with hazard predictions. The analysis indicates that the sensitivity of inundation areas to the geometrical parameters (i.e., top‐edge depth, strike, and dip) depends on the tsunami source characteristics and the site location, and is therefore complex and highly nonlinear. The variability assessment of inundation footprints indicates significant influence of slip distributions. In particular, topographical features of the region, such as ria coast and near‐shore plain, have major influence on the tsunami inundation footprints. A computational framework for sensitivity and variability of tsunami inundationStochastic tsunami scenariosStochastic tsunami hazard maps for hazard mapping and risk reduction

The effects of wave steepness and wave breaking on the stability of wave-dissipating blocks placed on caisson breakwaters are examined by hydraulic experiments under conditions with and without wave breaking. It is confirmed that there is a clear dependence of the block stability on the wave steepness through the wave-breaking type, such as plunging and spilling breakers. The stability parameter in the spilling breaker case is larger than that in the plunging breaker case. For non-breaking wave conditions, there is no effect of the wave steepness. An empirical stability formula is proposed taking into account the effects of the wave steepness and the wave-breaking type. Finally, by using the stability formula, failure probabilities of the wave-dissipating blocks having a nominal diameter are evaluated by the first-order reliability method of the Level II reliability analysis.

We investigated the effects of 6 weeks of detraining on muscle size and strength in young men who had previously participated in 6 weeks (3 days/week) of 30 % of concentric one-repetition maximal (1-RM) dumbbell curl training [one arm: concentric blood flow restricted (BFR) exercise (CON-BFR); the other arm: eccentric BFR exercise (ECC-BFR)]. MRI-measured muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) at 10 cm above the elbow joint increased from pre to post (p< 0.01), and the muscle CSA following detraining remained greater than pre (p< 0.01) but was similar to that observed at post. Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) increased from pre to post (p< 0.05), and the MVC following detraining remained greater than pre (p< 0.05) but was similar to that observed at post. The ECC-BFR did not produce any changes across time. Increased muscle strength following 6 weeks of CON-BFR was well preserved at 6 weeks of detraining, which may be primarily related to muscle hypertrophy.

Binary mixtures of two protic ionic liquids (PILs), namely, diethylmethylammonium hydrogensulfate ([dema]HSO4) and diethylmethylammonium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide ([dema][NTf2]), were prepared by mixing in various weight ratios for prospective use as fuel cell electrolytes. The binary mixtures showed significantly higher electrochemical activity compared with the constituent pure PILs, and the activity changed depending on the composition of the mixtures. Specifically, the open circuit potential (OCP) for a H2| O2cell using a binary electrolyte consisting of 56 wt % [dema][NTf2] was 1.03 V vs a reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE), whereas the values were 0.90 and 0.77 V for pure [dema]HSO4and [dema][NTf2], respectively, under similar conditions. The electrochemical activity of the binary mixtures was interpreted by comparing their molecular characteristics inferred from Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and 1H NMR spectroscopy with those of the constituent PILs. The binary systems showed enhanced electrochemical activity, possibly due to anion/proton exchange through the formation of hydrogen bonds of varying strengths via the N–H bond. The anion/proton exchange appears to average the N–H bond strength to render it suitable for fuel cell reactions. Bulk physicochemical properties such as thermal properties, viscosity, ionic conductivity, and ionicity were also measured precisely. The results of the pulsed gradient spin echo (PGSE) NMR and Walden plot collectively suggest that the Grotthuss mechanism in addition to the vehicle mechanism contributes to proton transport in the binary systems, possibly due to the coexistence of [dema] cation and HSO4–anion, whereas the vehicle mechanism is dominant for pure [dema][NTf2].

Although blood flow-restricted low-intensity resistance training (BFR-RT) increases muscle size and strength in older adults, the effect of detraining on muscle adaptation is unclear. We investigated the effects of 24 weeks of detraining on thigh muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and one-repetition maximum strength (1-RM) in older adults who had previously participated in 12 weeks of training (BFR-RT, 20–30 % 1-RM, knee extension and leg press) or non-BFR training. Both 1-RM and relative dynamic strengths (1-RM divided by quadriceps femoris (QF) muscle CSA) were higher at both post-training and detraining than at pre-training for the BFR-RT group (p< 0.05). QF muscle CSA was higher at only post-training than at pre-training for the BFR-RT group (p< 0.01). Increased muscle strength following 12 weeks of training with BFR-RT was well preserved at 24 weeks of detraining, which is due mainly to neural adaptation in older adults.

Li+intercalation into graphite electrodes was investigated in electrolytes consisting of triglyme (G3) and Li[TFSA] [TFSA = bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide]. Li+-intercalated graphite was successfully formed in an equimolar molten complex, [Li(G3)1][TFSA]. The desolvation of Li+ions took place at the graphite/[Li(G3)1][TFSA] interface in the electrode potential range 0.3–0 V vs Li. In contrast, the cointercalation of G3 and Li+(intercalation of solvate [Li(G3)1]+cation) into graphite occurred in [Li(G3)x][TFSA] electrolytes containing excess G3 (x> 1). This cointercalation took place in the voltage range 1.5–0.2 V of the [Li|[Li(G3)x][TFSA]|graphite] cell. X-ray diffraction showed that the [Li(G3)1]+-intercalated graphite forms staged phases in the voltage range 1.5–0.3 V. However, exfoliation of the graphite is caused by further intercalation at voltages lower than 0.3 V. [Li(G3)1]+intercalation was reversible in the voltage range 1.5–0.4 V. The cointercalation process was studied using cyclic voltammetry, and it was found that the electrode potential for cointercalation depends on the [Li(G3)1]+activity, irrespective of the presence of free (uncoordinated) G3. In contrast, the electrode potential for the formation of Li+-intercalated graphite (desolvation of solvate [Li(G3)1]+cation) changes greatly, depending on the activities of not only the solvate [Li(G3)1]+cation but also free G3 in the electrolyte. In extremely concentrated electrolytes, the activity of the free solvent becomes very low. Raman spectroscopy confirmed a very low concentration of free G3 in [Li(G3)1][TFSA]. Consequently, the electrode potentials for the formation of Li+-intercalated graphite were higher than that for cointercalation, and the cointercalation of G3 was inhibited in [Li(G3)1][TFSA].

Low-intensity resistance exercise with blood flow restriction (BFR) has been shown to induce a prominent increase in muscle activation in response to muscle fatigue. However, the magnitude of muscle fatigue between continuous (Con-BFR) and intermittent BFR (Int-BFR, BFR only during exercise) is currently unknown. We examined the effect of Con-BFR or Int-BFR on muscle activation during exercise. Unilateral arm curl exercise (20% of one-repetition maximum, four sets, 30 sec rest period between sets) was performed without (CON) or with Con-BFR or Int-BFR. During BFR conditions, the cuff was inflated to 160 mmHg on the proximal region of testing arm. Surface electromyography (EMG) was recorded from the biceps brachii muscle, and integrated EMG (iEMG) was analyzed. During the exercise, iEMG increased progressively in Con-BFR and Int-BFR and both conditions were greater (p< 0.05) than CON at the 3rdand 4thset. However, there were no differences (p> 0.05) in iEMG between Con-BFR and Int-BFR during exercise (∼2.45 and ∼2.40 times, respectively). Thus, the magnitude of increase in muscle activation may be similar between Con-BFR and Int-BFR when BFR exercise was performed at a high level of cuff pressure intensity.

We present here printable high-performance polymer actuators comprising ionic liquid (IL), soluble polyimide, and ubiquitous carbon materials. Polymer electrolytes with high ionic conductivity and reliable mechanical strength are required for high-performance polymer actuators. The developed polymer electrolytes comprised a soluble sulfonated polyimide (SPI) and IL, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide ([C2mim][NTf2]), and they exhibited acceptable ionic conductivity up to 1 × 10–3S cm–1and favorable mechanical properties (elastic modulus >1 × 107Pa). Polymer actuators based on SPI/[C2mim][NTf2] electrolytes were prepared using inexpensive activated carbon (AC) together with highly electron-conducting carbon such as acetylene black (AB), vapor grown carbon fiber (VGCF), and Ketjen black (KB). The resulting polymer actuators have a trilaminar electric double-layer capacitor structure, consisting of a polymer electrolyte layer sandwiched between carbon electrode layers. Displacement, response speed, and durability of the actuators depended on the combination of carbons. Especially the actuators with mixed AC/KB carbon electrodes exhibited relatively large displacement and high-speed response, and they kept 80% of the initial displacement even after more than 5000 cycles. The generated force of the actuators correlated with the elastic modulus of SPI/[C2mim][NTf2] electrolytes. The displacement of the actuators was proportional to the accumulated electric charge in the electrodes, regardless of carbon materials, and agreed well with the previously proposed displacement model.

Abstract

Protic ionic liquids were synthesized by simple neutralization reactions of a super-strong acid, bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) amide acid (H[NTf2]), with a range of amines, resulting in a wide variation in the DpKa of the constituent acid and bases. Bulk physicochemical and electrochemical properties of the PILs were studied with an emphasis on thermal stability and temperature dependencies of density, viscosity and conductivity, and electrochemical activity. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that thermal stability strongly depends on the DpKa of the constituent acid and the base. However, density, viscosity and conductivity at different temperatures by and large depend on the structure of amines rather than the DpKa. Walden plots indicate that all of these salts are good PILs. Cyclic voltammetry analyses inferred that the PIL with the highest DpKa value exhibited a very low electrochemical activity as apparent from the open circuit voltage of 0.60 V vs. RHE at 150 oC for oxygen reduction reaction.

At 14:46 local time on 11 March 2011, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurred off the coast of northeast Japan. The very large local tsunami heights and damage to coastal structures and other civil infrastructure were strongly dependent on the location. To verify the effectiveness of several types of tsunami protection strategies, we analyzed three typical areas from the Sanriku ria coast. Detailed survey data are shown with photographs and are discussed with regard to severity of damage and tsunami event. The roles of offshore tsunami breakwaters and coastal forests are discussed for severe tsunami, which exceeds 10 m near the coast. The survey observations and results from numerical calculations clearly indicate the reduction of tsunami damage due to an offshore barrier in Kamaishi Bay.

An Mw9.0 earthquake occurred in the Tohoku-oki area, Japan, at 14:46 local time on 11 March 2011. Tsunamis due to this earthquake were the largest in the recorded history of Japan and caused extensive damage to the eastern coast of Tohoku. In this study, a field survey of damage due to the extremely large tsunamis was carried out for 20 coastal areas along the Iwate and Miyagi Prefectures, focusing on damage to coastal structures and on whether these defense structures were broken completely or failed to perform some measure of tsunami protection. It was found that coastal structures failed locally, rather than entirely along a section of coastline. It is suggested that design conditions for coastal defense structures should be determined by taking into consideration topography, especially low-lying land areas behind structures.

To investigate the effects of polymer structure on the properties of composite membranes including a protic ionic liquid, [dema][TfO] (diethylmethylammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate), for nonhumidified fuel cell applications, we synthesized sulfonated polyimides (SPIs) with different structures as matrix polymers, which have different magnitudes of ion-exchange capacities (IECs), different sequence distributions of ionic groups, and positions of sulfonate groups in the main chain or side chain. Despite having similar IECs, multiblock copolymer SPI and random copolymer SPI having sulfonate groups in the side chain exhibit higher ionic conductivity than random copolymer SPI having sulfonate groups in the main chain, indicating that the flexibility of sulfonic acid groups and the sequence distribution of ionic groups greatly affect the ion conduction. Atomic force microscopy observation revealed that the multiblock copolymer SPI forms more developed phase separation than the others. These results indicate that the flexibility of sulfonic acid groups and the connectivity of the ion conduction channel, which greatly depends on the sequence distribution, affect the ion conduction.

A series of novel polyimide electrolytes having long pendant sulfo‐ or phosphoalkoxy groups were synthesized for fuel‐cell applications. Sulfodecyloxy‐, phosphodecyloxy‐, and sulfophenoxydodecyloxy‐substituted benzidine monomers were synthesized from dihydroxybenzidine. These monomers were copolymerized with naphthalene tetracarboxylic dianhydride and fluorenylidene dianiline to give the corresponding polyimides. A flexible, ductile, and self‐standing membrane was obtained via casting from the polyimide solution. Because the acid groups were on long pendant side chains and away from the main chains, the polyimide membrane showed improved oxidative and hydrolytic stability in comparison with the polyimides with sulfonic acid groups on the main chains or on the short side chains. High thermal stability (no glass‐transition temperature and a decomposition temperature > 200 °C) was also obtained. The polyimide membrane displayed high proton conductivity of 10−1 S cm−1 at 120 °C. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 44: 3995–4005, 2006

The Indian Ocean Tsunami on 26 December 2004 affected Sri Lanka, which is located 1,700 km from the epicenter. A field investigation was conducted along the southwest coast of Sri Lanka to measure tsunami trace heights, investigate the damage, and obtain correct information on the tsunami. The results of the field survey showed that the tsunami arrived on the southwest coasts two and a half hours or more after the earthquake. The average tsunami height was 5 m along the southwest coast and tsunami trace heights of 10 m were found locally. The tsunami destroyed a number of wooden and brick houses, damaged port and harbor facilities and coastal railways, washed away many vessels, and scoured the foundations of coastal structures. The port and harbor facilities such as the breakwaters, and rigid coastal houses continuing along the coast reduced the tsunami and lessened the damage that it caused.Hydraulic experiments were conducted to investigate the characteristics of tsunami flooding on flat or declining ground, since it was clarified by the field survey that the severer tsunami damage was caused at the place where the coastal land inclines inland. The experimental results show that the pressure acting on the structure on the sloping bottom was at least twice that of the flat bottom under the experimental conditions.

Summary: A novel aromatic polymer electrolyte with pendant sulfodecyloxy groups was synthesized. The monomer 4, bis[2-(10′-sulfodecyloxy)-5-chlorophenyl]sulfone, was synthesized from bis(2‐hydroxy‐5‐chlorophenyl)sulfide via bromoalkylation, oxidation, and sulfonation, and then polymerized via Ni‐catalyzed C&bond;C coupling polymerization to afford the title polymer electrolyte 6. The polymer 6 was isolated as a brown powder with molecular weight of $\overline M _{\rm w}$ = 12 000. The high decomposition temperature of 6 (200 °C) was confirmed by TG/DTA‐MS measurement. Proton conductivity of 6 was measured using porous polyimide membrane as a supporting substrate. The pore‐filled membrane showed 1 × 10−5 S · cm−1 of the proton conductivity at 80 °C and 90% RH.Synthesis of aromatic polymer electrolyte having sulfodecyloxy groups via nickel-catalyzed C&bond;C coupling polymerization.

A series of sulfopropylated and sulfobutylated polyimide copolymers containing fluorenyl groups, SPI‐4, were synthesized to investigate the effect of alkyl side chains on the properties (stability, mechanical strength, water uptake, and proton conductivity) of the polymimide electrolyte membranes. SPI‐4 showed much better hydrolytic stability (in 10% MeOH aq at 100 °C) than the main chain sulfonated polyimide, SPI‐1. Tough, flexible, and ductile membranes were obtained from these copolymers. At high relative humidity all the SPI‐4 membranes showed high mechanical properties (>34 MPa of the maximum stress) and proton conductivity (>0.1 Scm−1). These properties are comparable to or even better than those of the perfluorosulfonic acid ionomer (Nafion 112). The new polyimide ionomers have proved to be a possible candidate as polymer electrolyte membrane for PEFCs and DMFCs. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 43: 4439–4445, 2005

The novel synthesis of π-conjugated molecules by the cross-metathesis reaction of vinylferrocene with a series of vinylarenes has been investigated with a molybdenum-based Schrock catalyst (CHCMe2Ph)Mo(N-2,6-i-Pr2C6H3)[OCMe(CF3)2]2. The cross-metathesis product, a heterodimer, was readily obtained selectively, and only small amounts of the respective homodimers were formed. The origin of the high selectivity of heterodimer formation was elucidated through the metallacyclobutane intermediate mechanism, the observation of carbenes by in situ ¹H NMR, and the reaction products.

Proton-conductivity-enhancing ionic liquid (IL) has been prepared from 1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidine (TMG) and excess trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (TfOH). The fast mobile nature of conductive protons has been characterized by NMR, IR spectroscopy and B3LYP/6-31G* calculations.

Experiments were conducted at a 1:20 length scale in a large tsunami flume to measure wave evolution and pressures on and around structural elements. The water surface profiles of waves propagating across a bare beach were compared with those recorded in front of an onshore obstacle representing an urban macro-roughness element. The addition of a structure significantly changed the water surface profile for broken waves: the water surface amplification in the presence of a macro-roughness element reached seven times the bare-earth water surface elevation. Estimated pressures from design equations were calculated using recommended inputs and compared with pressures recorded by gauges installed on the structural elements. Design equations showed good agreement for non-breaking wave pressures but underestimated peak pressures for breaking waves. Likewise, force integrations of measured pressures on the experimental specimen indicated that design equations may underestimate loads due to waves that break offshore and propagate across a beach as a turbulent bore. The time-integrated pressure impulse was shown to be less sensitive to wave characteristics than the peak recorded pressures. Time-averaged loading curves were also developed for different average periods.

A distinct difference between the use of protic ionic liquids (PILs) prepared from oxo and amide acids as an electrolyte of nonhumidified intermediate-temperature fuel cells has been demonstrated in terms of the fuel cell performance by using composite membranes made of a sulfonated polyimide and the PILs.

New scaling relationships of key earthquake source parameters are developed by uniformly and systematically analyzing 226 finite-fault rupture models from the SRCMOD database (http://equake-rc.info/srcmod/). The source parameters include the fault width, fault length, fault area, mean slip, maximum slip, Box-Cox power, correlation lengths along dip and strike directions, and Hurst number. The scaling relationships are developed by distinguishing tsunamigenic models from non-tsunamigenic models; typically, the former occurs in ocean and has gentler dip angles than the latter. The new models are based on extensive data, including recent mega-thrust events, and thus are more reliable. Moreover, they can be implemented as multivariate probabilistic models that take into account uncertainty and dependency of the multiple source parameters. The comparison between new and existing models indicates that the new relationships are similar to the existing ones for earthquakes with magnitudes up to about 8.0, whereas the relationships for the fault width and related parameters differ significantly for larger mega-thrust events. An application of the developed scaling relationships in tsunami hazard analysis is demonstrated by synthesizing stochastic earthquake source models in the Tohoku region of Japan. The examples are aimed at providing practical guidance as to how the developed scaling relationships can be implemented in stochastic tsunami simulation. The numerical results indicate that the effects of magnitude scaling of the source parameters and their uncertainties have major influence on the tsunami hazard assessment.

Boulders numbering in the high hundreds/low thousands, and with masses up to ∼30 tonnes, were transported onshore by Super Typhoon Haiyan in Calicoan Island, Philippines to maximum ground elevations that could exceed 9m and terminal positions up to ∼180m inland. One-dimensional Boussinesq hindcasts of coastal boulder motion showed intermittent transport initiated at the fronts of infragravity swash bores. Transport distances were found to be highly sensitive to wave-height, enough so that observations of terminal positions may be a viable method of estimating rough paleostorm magnitudes. The large accelerations at bore fronts generated significant inertial forces, particularly for larger boulders, but drag forces had greater root-mean-square magnitudes in all simulations. Widely used relations to infer fluid velocities from boulder properties were tested using modeled boulders — inferred velocities at modeled terminal boulder positions were compared to maximum computed Boussinesq fluid velocities at these locations and found to be significantly lower. This underprediction of inferred velocities was greatest for smaller boulders that were strongly mobile. Inferred drag loads compared to modeled values were somewhat more accurate for large boulders when a Froude number of unity was assumed to estimate flow depths. Although these boulders were unequivocally transported by storm waves, their large sizes and distances traveled venture into what has been considered the tsunami range. Thus, care must be taken to interpret the provenance of coastal boulder fields with unknown origin for lower to mid-latitude regions.

A novel protic ionic liquid ethylmethylpropylammonium nonafluorobutanesulfonate ([empa][NfO]) was found to exhibit hydrophobicity, high ionic conductivity, and facile electroactivity toward hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions; these properties make it a suitable electrolyte for nonhumidified intermediate-temperature fuel cells.

Novel synthesis of π-conjugated molecules by cross-metathesis reaction of vinylferrocene with a series of vinylarenes was investigated with a molybdenum-based Schrock catalyst (CHCMe2Ph)Mo(N-2,6-i-Pr2C6H3)[OCMe(CF3)2]2. The cross-metathesis reactions occurred successfully and the cross-metathesis product, i.e., heterodimers, were readily obtained selectively, together with only small amounts of the corresponding self-dimers.

Dinuclear metal complexes of phenylene-linked bis-β-di-ketone ligands were prepared and the magnetic interactions between the complex units along the &#960-conjugated linkers were investigated. Both ferro- and antiferromagnetic interactions were observed for the m- and p-phenylene-linked dimers, respectively.

A computational framework for probabilistic tsunami risk assessment due to a mega-thrust subduction earthquake is developed and is applied to the 2011 Tohoku Tsunami from retrospective viewpoints. The uncertain tsunami source characteristics are represented by multiple source inversion models and their stochastic variations that are generated using the spectral analysis and synthesis method. By conducting Monte Carlo tsunami simulation, stochastic inundation depth maps can be developed, which are subsequently integrated with tsunami fragility curves to develop stochastic tsunami risk maps. The stochastic tsunami risk maps display spatial variability of tsunami damage probabilities for a building portfolio, reflecting not only possible tsunami scenarios but also uncertain tsunami resistance of buildings. The numerical results indicate that both stochastic tsunami risk maps and risk curves are affected by the local terrain features, proximity to major tsunami sources, and building characteristics (material type and story number). Consideration of different reference tsunami source models in probabilistic tsunami risk assessment are identified as one of the critical contributors to the overall uncertainty of the tsunami risk predictions. Therefore, in determining critical scenarios for tsunami evacuation and risk mitigation, a wide range of possible tsunami scenarios should be considered in light of the current limited seismological knowledge for the mega-thrust subduction earthquake.

Crown heights of seawalls should be designed to suppress overtopping discharge to a permissible level. The permissible level is determined from viewpoints of the structure types of coastal seawalls and hinterland use. It is usually difficult to design the crown heights of seawalls, especially in the present time where climate change due to global warming is expected. This study analyzes climate change effects such as sea level rise (SLR) and increase of waves and surges on the failure probability of seawalls under various conditions of crown height, toe depth and slope by using a Level III reliability analysis. It was found that the difference of SLR trends (fast, medium or low) has less impact on overtopping rates than the differences in wave height change for a seawall at a target location.

Protic ionic liquids were synthesized by simple neutralization reactions of a super-strong acid, bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) amide acid (H[NTf2]), with a range of amines, resulting in a wide variation in the ΔpKa of the constituent acid and bases. Bulk physicochemical and electrochemical properties of the PILs were studied with an emphasis on thermal stability and temperature dependencies of density, viscosity and conductivity, and electrochemical activity. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that thermal stability strongly depends on the ΔpKa of the constituent acid and the base. However, density, viscosity and conductivity at different temperatures by and large depend on the structure of amines rather than the ΔpKa. Walden plots indicate that all of these salts are good PILs. Cyclic voltammetry analyses inferred that the PIL with the highest ΔpKa value exhibited a very low electrochemical activity as apparent from the open circuit voltage of 0.60 V vs. RHE at 150 oC for oxygen reduction reaction.

The field survey results obtained by the team of authors in the north of Miyagi Prefecture between April 1 and 6, 2011 are summarized referring to a part of the survey results by other teams of the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Joint Survey Group. The inundation height above sea level was measured using a laser range finder with a reflection prism. The inundation height was generally larger at bay heads, as well as promontory tips, except several points, which were sheltered by a peninsula or had a tapering area. The tsunamis reached inland far away from the sea along valleys and rivers. Not only steel frame buildings but also many reinforced concrete buildings were collapsed in Onagawa Town. According to the numerical results, the first of tsunamis from the west coast and the second of tsunamis from the east coast should come together in Utatsusaki Peninsula, which is consistent with the interviews to survivors.

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