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The paper aimed to evaluate the impacts of water pricing and quota policies under changing climatic conditions on the major production factors using economic-biophysical modeling. The data were collected by 382 questionnaires focusing on wheat, barley, cotton, alfalfa, and sugar beet crops in the 2017-2018 cropping year in North Khorasan Province, Iran. Climate change scenarios were defined as wet, moderate, and dry scenarios resulting from precipitation changes. The results showed that climate change scenarios reduce the total irrigated area of crops and total water used. Due to the effect of precipitation on crop yield, dry and moderate climate changes reduce the total gross income, while wet climate changes increase it. The scenarios of quota and pricing policies were then applied under climate change scenarios. The amount of water conserved by applying the quota policy was equal to the quota rate, while the impact of the pricing policy varied depending on the type of climate change. The highest amount of water conserved belonged to the conditions of dry climate change in Atrak and Central Desert catchments, which was about 6.8-8.6 and 3.83-14.48%, respectively. As the climate moves toward drought conditions in this province, the implementation of such policies can partially protect water resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable water supply is one of the key issues for water resources management. The future demand for clean water is putting pressure on the Malaysian government to find alternative supplies and best management practices in managing water resources, such as the use of reclaimed water. This paper evaluates the perceptions and acceptance of the use of treated water for non-drinking purposes in Malaysia from the responses of 1,004 participants. The results show that age and level of education play an important role in the level of community acceptance. Females tend to be more selective than males in their acceptance to use reclaimed water. To guarantee that the public receives accurate information about reclaimed water, social media can be used for disseminating information, especially to younger generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is exacerbating the extremes in hydro-meteorological events. Together with other global drivers under change--population growth, rapid urbanisation, increased asset values--this may result in increased frequencies and even higher impacts of water-related disasters. Further comprehensive actions are needed to reduce the vulnerability and to increase the resilience of exposed populations and assets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Against increasing number of unprecedented heavy rains and typhoons reflecting climate change, the Japanese Government decided saving life as the top priority considering a ‘worst-case’ scenario. Accordingly, the Flood Risk Management Act was amended in 2015 to use the anticipated maximum scale precipitation (AMSP) for flood inundation calculation. In order to estimate the AMSP, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) chose historical maximum areal precipitation in the form of duration–area–depth (DAD) curves rather than climate change projections’ dataset d4PDF. In this paper, policy development and detailed estimation procedures for the AMSP were reviewed and discussed. It was concluded that the current climate change projections are still not accurate enough to be used as the basis for real local operations, while long accumulated ground observations and ground-based radars are available in good quality all over Japan. But at the same time, historical maximum should always be updated as past records are renewed. Also, regional partitioning should not be done at too coarse of scale for proper regionalization of DAD. Such strategy would serve as a useful reference for other nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At present, there is a global deficit in infrastructure and the World Bank Group (WBG) is one of the major sources of financing to reduce this gap worldwide. The WBG has policies and protocols for approving investments taking into consideration financial and economic indicators while ensuring social and environmental safeguards. In recent years, these safeguards have been updated to include the effects of climate change and robustness and resilience to support climate-informed project investment decision-making. A series of tools for screening projects for climate vulnerabilities and identification of risk management options have been developed to help project teams comply with these requirements. One of these tools is the hierarchical four-phased Decision Tree Framework (DTF) that, beyond screening, helps to analyze plans and project vulnerabilities, climate-related or otherwise, using a decision scaling approach, and explore risk management options, if necessary. The four phases of the DTF are (i) project screening, (ii) initial analysis, (iii) stress test, and (iv) climate risk management. This paper reviews applications of the DTF from the climate change screening phase to non-climate uncertainty screening and decision-making for project investments and prioritization. A peek into work in progress for incorporating resilience in the decision-making process, both for projects and through projects, is also provided, as well as next steps, looking forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Asia-Pacific region is extremely vulnerable to climate variability and change. This reflects high exposure to hydroclimatic hazards such as tropical cyclones, floods, droughts, and heatwaves. Rapidly growing cities and low-lying coastal zones/estuaries also face threats from sea level rise and storm surges. However, climate model projections remain very uncertain about most of these risks, so water infrastructure and operations need to consider a range of plausible futures. Against this background, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) has been developing frameworks, tools, and capacities in climate risk and adaptation assessment and management. Project teams are often operating in data-scarce situations and under significant time constraints, so the emphasis has been on creating pragmatic guidance and training resources. This paper charts the transition of climate risk management (CRM) within the ADB from a predominantly scenario-led to decision-led approach to adaptation. Examples are given of light-touch procedures for screening climate risks, strengthening the transparency and rigour of scenario analysis, raising awareness of a broad range of adaptation options, streamlining identification of CRM options, and embedding allowances for climate change in detailed engineering designs. Such practical innovations would benefit communities of practice beyond the Asia-Pacific region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many countries in the world, including South Africa, are water-stressed with increasing pressure on their water resources due to population growth, climate change, and inadequate funding. Post-independence in 1994, many policies and programmes were introduced by the government with the aim of promoting water management. While these policies and strategies achieved much in terms of water provision to communities and households, they failed to establish a water-conscious country with sufficient knowledge and expertise in water management. In addition, these policies and programmes are outdated, compartmentalised, complex, and lack robust water governance with resilient stakeholder partnerships that advance the more explicit second phase of the National Development Plan (NDP) to achieve water security under the threat of climate change. Using data collection tools inspired by the traditional method of participatory research, this paper analyses the structural and systematic factors hindering the implementation of comprehensive policies to achievewater security in South Africa. There is, therefore, an urgent need for SouthAfrica to establish an independent water regulator to ensure coordination between different government departments, including the National Treasury, to strengthen weak governance capacity and to make it independent to attract private equity into the sector and to recover fiscal deficits in the water sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change adaptation in water management is a water governance issue. While neither climate change nor water respects national borders, adaptation in water management should be treated as a transboundary water governance issue. However, transboundary water management is, in essence, more complex than national water management because the water management regimes usually differ more between countries than within countries. This paper provides 63 lessons learned from almost a decade of cooperation on transboundary climate adaptation in water management under the UNECE Water Convention and puts these into the context of the OECD principles on water governance. It highlights that good water governance entails a variety of activities that are intertwined and cannot be considered stand-alone elements. The paper also shows that this wide variety of actions is needed to develop a climate change adaptation strategy in water management. Each of the lessons learned can be considered concrete actions connected to one or more of the OECD principles, where a range of actions may be needed to fulfil one principle. The paper concludes that developing climate change adaptation measures needs to improve in parallel the water governance system at transboundary scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water crisis and, particularly, drop in rainfall in Iran are not only an environmental matter but also a security issue. This paper tries to draw attention to the substantial social consequences of climate change in Iran and particularly addresses whether precipitation scarcity from 2007 to 2014 has a conflict-making effect in the province of Iran using the system GMM model. We show that rainfall shortage and the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), as an index of drought, could stimulate the propensity for individuals to engage in disruptive activities in provinces of Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this paper is to assess the water crisis in Nepal by conducting a series of case studies in rural watersheds in the mid-hills. This was achieved through the applied qualitative method, especially combinations of desk study/structured searches, consultation, and field observation. The ground survey revealed that most of the rural communities in the mid-hills have an unreliable water supply. According to the local stakeholders, 20-25% of water resources have dried up as compared to 20 years ago. Drying up of water resources disproportionately affects women and girls in rural areas as women are responsible for household chores, including fetching drinking water. The findings also revealed that low-income households bear a disproportionate coping burden as compared to elite groups, as they often engage in coping strategies such as collecting water from distant water sources, which is labor- and time-intensive, and also yields smaller quantities of water. Assuming that unreliable water supplies will continue to exist in rural areas of the mid-hills for the foreseeable future, there is a critical need to consider which, if any, coping strategies will be most effective in ensuring that poor households will have access to safe and sufficient water supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of ecosystem services (ESS) has evolved as a link between society and the environment and is recognized by both natural and social scientists. While this concept is increasingly being developed and applied to various ecological systems, it has not been defined specifically for different kinds of water. As water circulation is crucial for large-scale services, such as climatic and hydrological regulation at global and regional scales, water provides specific ecological and anthropogenic services needed for a myriad of chemical, biological, and social needs. Various scholars mostly deal with one specific kind of water, while efforts at water governance need to understand that water passes through different phases and geographical locations providing different services at multiple scales within social-ecological systems. Hence, this paper addresses the question: what are the ESS of different kinds of freshwater and how are these services linked to human well-being? This paper investigates the literature on the subject to create a taxonomy of the kinds of water and their relations to ESS and human well-being. The paper concludes by identifying the implications for governing different kinds of water in order to enhance the potential for optimizing the ESS provided by water in its different phases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 19 September 1960, the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) was signed between India and Pakistan, presumably resolving the conflict of Indus water sharing. Nevertheless, over the years the conflict has re-appeared, dragging both the riparian states into confrontation. This paper explores the reasons that lead to conflict despite the Indus water sharing having already been resolved by the IWT. Analysis of the documentation shows that increasing construction of hydropower projects by India instigates conflict between the riparian states. The paper also analyzes two variables that will actualize the possibility of further conflict if correct steps are not taken. The paper concludes in ascertaining the credibility of the IWT to precisely address the challenges vis-à-vis issues that have resurfaced in Indus water sharing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing concern in Iraq about the inefficiency of reactive drought management practices. Corresponding actions are largely characterized as emergency-based responses that treat the symptoms of drought rather than consider the vulnerability components associated with impacts. The Diyala watershed shared between Iraq and Iran has been used as an example transboundary river basin marked by ineffectiveness of drought management. The standardized precipitation index and the reconnaissance drought index were used to determine the historical meteorological drought episodes and analysis indicated climate change-induced alterations in the area. Spatiotemporal drought maps were drawn, which can be used for the identification of drought prone areas and assist with proactive planning. This paper discusses the underlying causes of the impairments of drought management policies, and the challenges and difficulties accompanying the governance of drought in Iraq. Given the influence of climate change and the upstream anthropogenic pressures, the time has come to adopt a gradual nation-wide transition step to drought risk planning incorporating a management approach at the transboundary scale. Moreover, the institutional and technical water vulnerability components associated with drought management should be considered in an integrated manner. The paper presents a generic technical template to support decision-makers in drought risk management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban drainage systems are subject to many drivers which can affect their performance and functioning. Typically, climate change, urbanisation and population growth along with aging of pipes may lead to uncontrollable discharges and surface flooding. So far, many researchers and practitioners concerned with optimal design and rehabilitation of urban drainage systems have applied deterministic approaches which treat input parameters as fixed values. However, due to the variety of uncertainties associated with input parameters, such approaches can easily lead to either over-dimensioning or under-dimensioning of drainage networks. The present paper deals with such issues and describes a methodology that has been developed to accommodate the effects of uncertainties into the design and rehabilitation of drainage systems. The paper presents a methodology that can take into account uncertainties from climate change, urbanisation, population growth and aging of pipes. The methodology is applied and tested on a case study of Dhaka, Bangladesh. The urban drainage network optimisation problem is posed as a multi-objective problem for which the objective functions are formulated to minimise damage costs and intervention costs. Two approaches were evaluated and the results show that both approaches are capable of identifying optimal Pareto fronts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers extensively studied external loads since they are widely recognized as significant contributors to water pipe failures. Physical phenomena that affect pipe bursts, such as pipe-environment interactions, are very complex and only partially understood. This paper analyses the possible link between pipe bursts and climate-related factors. Many water utilities observed consistent occurrence of peaks in pipe bursts in some periods of the year, during winter or summer. The paper investigates the relationships between climate data (i.e., temperature and precipitation-related covariates) and pipe bursts recorded during a 24-year period in Scarborough (Ontario, Canada). The Evolutionary Polynomial Regression modelling paradigm is used here. This approach is broader than statistical modelling, implementing a multi-modelling approach, where a multi-objective genetic algorithm is used to get optimal models in terms of parsimony of mathematical expressions vs. fitting to data. The analyses yielded interesting results, in particular for cold seasons, where the discerned models show good accuracy and the most influential explanatory variables are clearly identified. The models discerned for warm seasons show lower accuracy, possibly implying that the overall phenomena that underlay the generation of pipe bursts during warm seasons cannot be thoroughly explained by the available climate-related covariates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustaining the water supply in megacities is an enormous challenge. To address this challenge, it is especially important to predict water demand changes in megacities. This paper presents a system dynamics model to predict the future water demands of different sectors considering multiple factors, including population, structure of the economy, and water supply and use technologies. Compared with traditional methods such as the time series method and structure analysis method, the proposed model takes into account the interconnections, non-linear relationships and feedbacks between the various factors in a systems context. The model is applied to Beijing, a megacity with a population over 20 million and very limited water availability. It is found that the total water demand is likely to increase by at least 36.1% (up to 62.5%) by 2030 compared with that in 2011, and the water deficits vary from -0.36 × 109 to 1.80 × 109m3 in 2030. In addition, scenarios are designed to account for impacts associated with economic development, climate change and inter-basin water transfers. It is shown that climate change may have a large impact on the water supply reliability in Beijing. The water shortage problems can be alleviated via inter-basin water transfers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical scarcity of freshwater is often given as the reason for water shortages, but it is usually its management that can either create or resolve the problem. This will be illustrated by the case of Barbados. The water management issues are typical of many small island states, some of which are particularly vulnerable to water scarcity, especially in the context of climate change. Barbados experiences extended interruptions in the water supply, mainly in northern and eastern parishes. Supplies of freshwater are relatively sparse, but it will be argued that it is the policy regime that ensures that water is inefficiently supplied, allocated and used, and so is the primary cause of supply interruptions. The objectives of this paper are to establish a theoretical framework for sustainable water resource management and frame a strategy for Barbados which reconciles demand and supply of water while taking into account environmental, economic and social interests. The mixed methodology involved semistructured interviews of policy makers and practitioners from the water, tourism, agriculture and planning sectors, as well as a household survey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All urban drainage networks are designed to manage a maximum rainfall. This situation implies an accepted flood risk for any greater rainfall event. This risk is often underestimated as factors such as city growth and climate change are ignored. But even major structural changes cannot guarantee that urban drainage networks would cope with all future rain events. Thus, being able to forecast urban flooding in real time is one of the main issues of integrated flood risk management. Runoff and hydraulic models can be essential elements of flood forecast systems, as an active part of the system or as studying tools. This paper gives an overview of current available options for pluvial flood modelling in urban areas, from basic estimations with a one-dimensional urban drainage model to detailed flood process representation with one dimensional-two dimensional hydrodynamic coupled models. Each type of modelling solution is described with pros and cons regarding urban flood analysis. The paper then elaborates on real-time flood forecast systems and the influence of their main components. A classification of real-time urban flood systems is given based on the use of urban models, i.e. empirical scenarios, pre-simulated scenarios and real-time simulations. A review of existing operational systems is done using this classification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few international water-sharing agreements have shown the flexibility to adjust to extended drought; fewer still provide safeguards for adaptation to modern climate variability. Yet, current conflicts over the development and use of transboundary rivers continue to motivate the search for negotiated water-sharing arrangements that can provide flexibility in the face of change. To avoid future conflicts, an agreement must include measures that allow for adaptation to changes in water supplies, population, climate, technology, infrastructure, and economic activity while also guiding water use patterns. The benefits of a flexible agreement can be a more predictable water supply for all riparians, greater incentives to develop needed water infrastructure and more open, transparent and accountable water institutions. Other benefits include increased food production, water security, environmental protection, reduced flood damage, better adaptation to the costs of extreme weather and variable climate, and a reduced need for complex legal, administrative and enforcement activities. This paper investigates ways to achieve sustainable transboundary water-sharing agreements. It investigates barriers to forging water-sharing agreements, describes errors that could undermine settlements and presents takeaway lessons from two North American agreements and one in south Asia. Finally, the paper proposes an approach by which information on headwater flows and historical use patterns could be used to allocate supplies between riparians that adapt to changes in water supply and demand. Outcomes from the implementation of structured, but flexible agreements could help guide future negotiated settlements for the worlds international rivers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given that climate change is likely to exacerbate drought in certain parts of the world, a critical issue is how appropriate context-relevant drought policy can be developed and implemented. This paper examines how China is developing policies to help local communities in the Lancang River Basin to cope with the problems of climate variability and change. The research process includes (a) content analysis of relevant policies at different levels of administration and (b) stakeholder interviews to examine how effective policies are at the local level along the Lancang River in Yunnan province. The paper concludes that China needs to provide more emphasis on (a) enhancing the adaptive capacity of institutions and individuals, (b) drought risk rather than disaster management, (c) enhancing coordination between different departments and levels of government, (d) decentralization in policymaking as local governments can make context-relevant comprehensive policies more easily and are less hierarchical in their relationships, (e) involving farmers or other stakeholders in decision making, (f) building up grass root organizations to support policy implementation to compensate for the retreat of governmental organizations from the local level and (g) adopting market mechanisms which are still in a nascent stage now. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate variability has always posed important challenges to water resources planners and engineers. Recent hydrologic data from different parts of the world show that the use of traditional stationary series statistical methods to assess risk and uncertainty may not produce reliable estimates. In particular, the 2014-2015 drought in Metropolitan São Paulo that was followed by major flooding in 2016 shows the intensification of climatic extremes in this part of Brazil. The probability of this drought event is only 0.004 when estimated with data available from 83 years of record, until 2013. Was the drought of 2014-2015 a statistical outlier or should one consider it as an event that can occur again along the planning horizon? The paper describes the hydrologic conditions that resulted in the most severe drought ever recorded and the structural and non-structural initiatives taken by water authorities to avoid social chaos in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo (21 million inhabitants). Furthermore, it discusses how the drought affected the existing water resources development plan, especially the anticipation of investments in water security. Because financial resources are limited, other investments, equally important but less urgent, are being delayed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources represented a benchmark in the assessment of water consumption from electricity production. The numbers for hydropower ranged from very low to much larger than the other renewable technologies, partly explained by methodological problems. One of the methodological shortcomings identified was the lack of guidance on how to allocate the water consumption rates in multipurpose reservoirs. This paper is, according to the authors' knowledge, the first attempt to evaluate, test and propose a methodology for the allocation of water consumption from such reservoirs. We tested four different allocation methods in four different cases, all serving three to five functions, including drinking water supply, irrigation, flood control, industrial water, ecological flow and power generation. Based on our case studies we consider volume allocation to be the most robust approach for allocating water consumption between functions in multipurpose reservoirs. The spatial boundaries of the analysis should follow the boundaries of the hydraulic system. We recommend that data should preferably be gathered from one source for all functions, to ensure a consistent calculation approach. We believe the findings are relevant for similar allocation problems, such as allocation of energy investments and green-house gas emissions from multipurpose reservoirs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ways we discuss water policy decisions often closely mirror broader social and ethical decisions, for example: water as a common good; water and human dignity; water as a facilitator of well being; rights and responsibilities of access to water; justice and water. Water is a symbol of reconciliation, healing and regeneration which appears in virtually all of our known organized faith-based religions. Water decisions truly seem to be at the nexus of ethics, public policies, nature, values, beliefs and rationality. This paper opens windows into this nexus by starting with selected water policy arenas (arenas not generally thought to contain dimensions of ethics and faith) and generalizing about the dilemmas presented by decisions in them. These arenas are: dealing with risk/ uncertainty in water and climate change decisions; changing terms of discourse on world water, especially between rich and poor; concepts of nature in water decision making; dealing with water and conflict; and processes of governance and water decisions. The paper concludes with suggestions of how ethics and faith might connect in decisions concerning water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in our ability to model complex environmental systems are currently driven by at least four needs: (1) the need for the inclusion of uncertainty in monitoring, modelling and decision-making; (2) the need to provide environmental predictions everywhere; (3) the need to predict the impacts of environmental change; and (4) the need to adaptively evolve observation networks to better resolve environmental systems and embrace sensing innovations. Satisfying these needs will require improved theory, improved models and improved frameworks for making and evaluating predictions. All of these improvements should result in the long-term evolution and improvement of observation systems. In the context of this paper we discuss current bottlenecks and opportunities for advancing environmental modelling with and without local observations of system response. More realistic representations of real-world thresholds, nonlinearities and feedbacks motivates the use of more complex models as well as the consequent need for more rigorous evaluations of model performance. In the case of gauged systems, we find that global sensitivity analysis provides a widely underused tool for evaluating models' assumptions and estimating the information content of data. In the case of ungauged systems, including the modelling of environmental change impacts, we propose that the definition of constraints on the expected system response provides a promising way forward. Examples of our own work are included to support the conclusions of this discussion paper. Overall, we conclude that an important bottleneck currently limiting environmental predictions lies in how our model evaluation and identification approaches are extracting, using and evolving the information available for environmental systems at the watershed scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper sets forth a framework to describe the science-policy interface. The "sedimentation-upwelling model" is a two-pan process through which scientific information gradually becomes part of resource managers' and policymakers' agendas. In this paper, sedimentation refers to a gradual process through which scientific information slowly permeates a policymaking body, often slowly and through multiple sources. Upwelling is a process by which policymakers, having become aware of scientific concepts in a general way though sedimentation, independently devise policy actions consistent with the scientific body of knowledge. The framework was tested in the case of climate change science and California water policy through an analysis of historical data and interviews with key players on the science and policy sides of this issue. A remarkably consistent scientific message over the course of fifteen years before 2003 was not followed by corresponding changes in water management, as a "linear model" in which policymakers act directly on scientists recommendations would predict. Instead, both sedimentation and upwelling operated in this case and the importance of the linear pathway was minimal. Viewing science in the context of the upwelling-sedimentation model does not imply that science is ultimately any less influential on policy. On the contrary, this work suggests that policymakers rely on general, widespread cues that come both directly from scientists and through intermediaries and that these cues can influence policy choices in important, but often indirect ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water research projects are often interdisciplinary and participatory in nature. Scientists and managers involved strive to create learning that advances science in various fields while providing benefits for society. They also face challenges of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) for accountability and measurement of impacts, required by funding agencies. In this paper we tested selected M&E processes and methods for their potential to increase capacity in a cross-cultural inter-disciplinary research setting of an urban water research project. A total of eight different qualitative and quantitative evaluation methods were assessed using two processes: self-evaluation by researchers, testing five methods; and the external evaluations by stakeholders, testing three methods. Both processes were found useful. Of the five self-evaluation methods tested, the Logical Frameworks method was deemed a good planning tool but not one contributing to learning. The qualitative (Factors of Success and Obstacles/Enablers) and the Best Case/Worst Case Scenarios quantitative method were effective learning methods. Tracking Change was found suitable for measuring learning. We recommended that a combination of methods be used in order to capture the full dynamic of projects in various stages. Explicit timelines for indicators and measures of project success are recommended for managing expectations of both researchers and funding agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses the system of economic and environmental accounting for water to demonstrate how the water sector interacts with the social-economic sectors of the economy. Furthermore, it reviews the existing institutional and policy framework in Uganda, and proposes an analytical framework which can be used to provide sound intersectoral planning in order to achieve sustainable water resource use. The proposed framework also articulates how outcomes of water policies and social-economic policies can be analyzed. In Uganda, the uneven distribution of water resources both in space and time, poses constraints to economic activity particularly in the water-scarce regions of the country. The problem is being exacerbated by the increasingly erratic rainfall and rising temperatures. The accounting results show that the current level of water use within the economy is less than the available quantity. In this regard, there is room for the development of mechanisms to increase its utilization. This would serve to mitigate the scarcity especially of water for production which primarily emanates from climate variability. This in turn affects the performance of the economy, as key sectors such as agriculture are rainfall-dependent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well recognized that climatic variability and human activities are resulting in severe water scarcity in China, especially in the mega city Beijing; one important issue is how to manage water resources in order to tackle this situation. This paper assesses the implementation of the Strictest Administration of Water Resources in Beijing, which was issued by the State Council of China in 2012. The assessment is threefold: (a) analysis of water consumption conditions in Beijing, (b) analysis of water resources management systems in Beijing, and (c) existing problems in the current water management system. Our study suggests that Beijing needs to focus more on improving the building of water resources management agencies, taking effective economic measures, strengthening law construction, developing advanced techniques for water-saving, and strengthening the building of a water-saving culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to move towards an un-encoded metadata standard supporting the description of environmental numerical models and their interfaces with other such models. Building on formal metadata standards and supported by the local standards applied by modelling frameworks, the desire is to produce a solution, which is as simple as possible yet meets the requirements to support model coupling processes. The purpose of this metadata is to allow environmental numerical models, with a first application for a hydro-meteorological model chain, to be discovered and then an initial evaluation made of their suitability for use, in particular for integrated model compositions. The method applied is to begin with the ISO19115 standard and add extensions suitable for environmental numerical models in general. Further extensions are considered pertaining to model interface parameters (or phenomena) together with spatial and temporal characteristics supported by feature types from climate science modelling language. Successful validation of parameters depends heavily on the existence of controlled vocabularies. The metadata structure formulated has been designed to strike the right balance between simplicity and supporting the purposes drawn out by interfacing the Real-time Interactive Basin Simulator hydrological model to meteorological and hydraulic models and, as such, successfully provides an initial level of information to the user. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information technologies can act as technical artifacts and can facilitate stakeholder communication, supporting decision making in a complex societal context. The water sector is one such example where limited water resources are threatened by climate change and growing competition for resources between sectors, regions and countries. Attempts to improve water governance and management through information technologies have been made by international, regional and national water agencies for the last 20 years in Central Asia. However, early attempts were focused on collection, systematization and analysis of the generic data related to the water sector in the region. There are still significant gaps (technical, human and financial capacities) for application of such technologies at the lower operational levels of water management, i.e. where the full dimensions of variables, interactions and complexities are observed and, most importantly, everyday politics of water are performed. The aim of this paper is to present practical results on improving water management in Central Asia through the application of better data management tools at the operational level across diverse institutional settings, i.e. transboundary, watershed levels in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Options for adapting to changing water resources' availability due to climate change have been routinely assessed for ability to alleviate expected impacts. Methods for evaluating effectiveness of adaptation options are usually based on, fundamentally different but complementary, hazards and vulnerability assessment based approaches. In this paper, we describe a framework to integrate these approaches for improved climate change adaptation policy making. We further review assessment approaches and corresponding criteria used for evaluation of planned adaptation options in the water sector. A synthesis of methods for evaluation reveals four main categories: (i) natural sciences based, (ii) social sciences based, (iii) overlapping and (iv) trans-disciplinary. Criteria from reviewed studies are classified using a scale vis-à-vis theme based classification, and unified into a criteria set covering important adaptation requirements while allowing case-specific modification. We find that important criteria, such as temporal scope of adaptation and implementability, have not been explicitly considered in scientific literature. The type of adaptation has an important bearing on evaluation and should be effectively modelled to make an informed decision regarding performance. Moreover, we suggest that it is important to explicitly consider influence of future changes in non-climatic factors along with climatic changes for a more robust analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an assessment framework that analyses the impacts of climate change on the water diversion strategies of a water transfer project in China. A water diversion strategy consists of high and low water levels as well as related diversion flows in four operating periods: pre-flood, flood, post-flood and non-flood periods. The optimal water diversion problem is defined as a multi-objective problem with two conflicting objectives: minimising human and ecological water supply shortages, and solved by the popular non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II). The derived Pareto- optimal solutions are then evaluated using the predicted runoffs based on an ensemble of three general circulation models under three climate scenarios. Results obtained from the study catchment show that intra-annual distribution of future runoff changes. The optimal solutions on the Pareto front have greatly varying performance under a climate scenario. It is critical to reveal the different impacts of climate change on the water shortages over the four operating periods, in particular when an increase of water shortage in one period is masked by a reduction in one or more periods. This study illustrates that the framework can be used to identify resilient water diversion strategies to mitigate the potential impacts of climate change on the operation of a water transfer project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to propose a decision support system (DSS) for evaluating the climate change impacts on water supply-demand and inundation; and assessing the risks for water shortage and inundation under future scenarios. The proposed DSS framework is universal and flexible, which comprises five modules integrated by a geographic information system platform, including the modules of (1) scenario rainfall and temperature projection under climate change, (2) impact assessment of water supply-demand, (3) impact assessment of inundation, (4) assessment of vulnerability and risk, and (5) adaptation strategy. A case study in southern Taiwan was performed to demonstrate how the DSS provides information on the climate change impacts and risks under future scenarios. The information is beneficial to the authorities of water resources management for understanding the spatial risks for water shortage and inundation, and planning suitable adaptation strategies for the locations with larger risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After more than a decade of meeting the designated objective of increasing productivity in agriculture, the South West coastal polders of Bangladesh have ended up as different man-made disasters. The failure of the polders to deliver the intended outcome is basically attributed to the lack of understanding of their hydro-morphological characteristics, inadequacy in their operation and maintenance, and failure to take into account their social relationship and culture roles. Changes in socioeconomic settings have also forced changes in the designated functions of the polders, but now the emerging context of climate change has become a major issue in rationalizing the coastal polders. In this context, this study is an attempt to review the historical and ongoing process of rationalization of the South West coastal polders, revealing that it is essential to take an integrated view of the hydrologic cycle and the interactions of human interventions. Finally, this paper recommends that an extended cost--benefit analysis with a multi-objective focus or a multi-criteria analysis, if monetizing is not possible, should be an option in rationalizing this multi-functional infrastructure. Proper macro-planning would require development of an institution capable of dealing with a task which is multi-dimensional and multidisciplinary in nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines whether key legislative and regulatory frameworks for the provision of water services in Sydney, Australia, successfully support the complex task of planning and managing urban water systems to balance water security, cost and sustainability considerations. The challenges of managing urban water systems under a changing and uncertain climate became starkly apparent during Australia's 'Millennium Drought', a decade-long period of extremely dry conditions throughout the 2000s. As the drought progressed, several state and territory governments assumed control of planning and approvals processes in order to implement large water-supply infrastructure projects with great urgency. However, at the end of the decade La Niña rains saturated catchments, spilled over dam walls and devastated several communities with flooding. Analysis of the frameworks for third-party access, private-sector participation, planning, and water-conservation initiatives reveals that the rules, roles and responsibilities of the many actors are interlinked but not always effectively integrated. The introduction and expansion of competition in the urban water industry are an ongoing experiment with great influence on the governance of the sector and the ways in which water services are planned for and provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is facing many challenges in the water sector while implementing integrated water resources management (IWRM). Another daunting task -- adapting to water-related impacts of climate change, is also challenging China's water managers. These challenges have been posing threats to China's economic, social and environmental development. While separate efforts in promoting IWRM and climate change adaptation have been made, the approach of mainstreaming climate change adaptation strategy within IWRM is seldom studied. Attempting to fill the gap, this paper argues that there is great potential in synergizing them after analysing their distinctions and common points. By developing climate-proofing strategies within IWRM, mainstreaming is able to minimize adverse water-related climate change risks and maximize the benefits of policies and plans. In this study, entry points of mainstreaming climate change adaptation in the sustaining environment of IWRM and its process will be identified and analysed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global climate change and local development make water supply one of the most vulnerable sectors in Australia. The Australian government has therefore commissioned a series of projects to evaluate water availability and the sustainable use of water resources in Australia. This paper discusses a river system modelling platform that has been used in some of these nationally significant projects. The platform consists of three components: provenance, modelling engine and reporting database. The core component is the modelling engine, an agent-based hydrological simulation system called the Integrated River System Modelling Framework (IRSMF). All configuration information and inputs to IRSMF are recorded in the provenance component so that modelling processes can be reproduced and results audited. The reporting database is used to store key statistics and raw output time series data for selected key parameters. This river system modelling platform has for the first time modelled a river system at the basin level in Australia. It provides practitioners with a unique understanding of the characteristics and emergent behaviours of river systems at the basin level. Although the platform is purpose-built for the Murray-Darling Basin, it would be easy to apply it to other basins by using different river models to model agent behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Successful adaptation to climate change requires flexible adaptation strategies which consider regional ecological, economic and social circumstances. Coastal zones are considered to be significantly vulnerable to climate change impacts. The projected impacts of climate change in the metropolitan region of Bremen-Oldenburg, Germany (a coastal area), are, for example, rising sea level, salt water intrusion, temporary groundwater scarcity in the summer and increased (heavy) rainfalls. This paper uses an existing framework, the Adaptive Capacity Wheel (ACW), complemented by two additional dimensions: adaptation motivation and adaptation belief. The objectives were first, to assess the adaptive capacity of water governance in the study region, and second, to show how the ACW can be used as an approach and a communication tool with stakeholders to identify strengths and weaknesses. Based on this, a further objective was to discover what lessons and recommendations can be drawn that could help water experts and stakeholders in the future. The results show a high adaptive capacity and that the addition of the psychological dimensions was valuable. However, it is important to look closely at each dimension assessed by the ACW. The key recommendations are: to improve public participation; to ensure better coordination; to raise awareness; and to reduce the lack of political will to overcome adaptation barriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the welfare costs associated with drought plan transactions between a public municipal water agency, the El Dorado Irrigation District (EID) in California in the USA and its customers. The EID imposes a tiered pricing plan for municipal customers, which was analyzed as a discrete continuous choice (DCC) model by water users within a climate driven water evaluation and planning (WEAP) model of the EID water system. The DCC is subsequently used to estimate the compensating variation (CV) measure of the loss of consumer welfare in the case where a customer does not receive water that matches a preferred level of demand. In addition to monetized welfare loss, we look at other metrics of performance such as reservoir storage and hydropower generation. For the drought-of-record under full build-out, results show that the welfare loss to EID customers from the imposed drought plan is far less than if no drought plan were in place. This suggests that current consumption is well beyond essential needs and, without a drought plan, water shortages in the later period of a drought would generate a much greater welfare loss. Most of the cost associated with the drought plan is born by EID in the form of reduced revenues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Downscaling methods are utilized to assess the effects of large scale atmospheric circulation on local hydrological variables such as precipitation and runoff. In this paper, a methodology of statistical downscaling using a support vector machine (SVM) approach is presented to simulate and predict the precipitation using general circulation model (GCM) data. Due to the complexity and issues related to finding a relationship between the large scale climatic parameters and local precipitation, the climate variables (predictors) affecting monthly precipitation variations over Wales are identified using a combination of the methods including the principal component analysis (PCA), fuzzy clustering, backward selection, forward selection, and Gamma test (GT). The effectiveness of those tools is illustrated through their implementations in the case study. It has been found that although the GT itself fails to identify the best input variable combination, it provides useful and narrowed-down options for further exploration. The best input variable combination is achieved by the GT and forward selection method. This approach can be a useful way for assessing the impacts of climate variables on precipitation forecasting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increase in frequency and severity of flash flood events in major cities around the world, the infrastructure and people living in those urban areas are exposed continuously to high risk levels of pluvial flooding. The situation is likely to be exacerbated by the potential impact of future climate change. A fast flood model could be very useful for flood risk analysis. One-dimensional (1D) models provide limited information about the flow dynamics whereas two-dimensional (2D) models require substantial computational time and cost, a factor that limits their use. This paper presents an alternative approach using cellular automata (CA) for 2D modelling. The model uses regular grid cells as a discrete space for the CA setup and applies generic rules to local neighbourhood cells to simulate the spatio-temporal evolution of pluvial flooding. The proposed CA model is applied to a hypothetical terrain and a real urban area. The synchronous state updating rule and inherent nature of the proposed model contributes to a great reduction in computational time. The results are compared with a hydraulic model and good agreement is found between the two models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floods and droughts and their associated economic, environmental, and social losses or damages are increasing in severity and frequency. Measures taken to reduce these losses or damages stemming from extreme events typically depend on how effective they are in reducing the consequences of having either too much or too little water and for longer periods of time. To identify trade-offs between the annual estimated loss or damage reduction, i.e., the benefits, however measured, and the average annual cost of various damage reduction measures, one can perform risk–cost analyses. Because of climate change, the likelihoods of future hydrologic extremes are both changing and uncertain. Also uncertain are any estimates of future damages that would occur given any specific extreme event. In addition, one cannot be certain of the future costs or benefits of damage reduction measures. This paper outlines a range of practical approaches for identifying these trade-offs, taking into account the uncertainties associated with future damages resulting from any specific flood or drought event, the changing uncertainties of future flood and drought events, and the uncertainty of future damage mitigation costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a prototype framework for sustainable flood management at the national level which features stakeholder participation, and is modified and applied to a case study. Through literature reviews and an interview survey of South Korea (the case study country), the causes of recent flood damage are found to be heavy rainfall due to climate change, urbanization, insufficient channel capacities and the application of inadequate measures. The interview survey also shows that, to reduce flood damage, along with consistent implementation of systematic long-term plans, minimizing injudicious artificial development is critical and necessary. Using the framework developed for South Korea on the basis of the findings and the prototype framework, national flood management is assessed and discussed. In particular, an implementation process based on flood risk management and integrated strategies is proposed to practically achieve the objectives of management practices with the cooperation of governmental organizations and stakeholders under circumstances of high uncertainty. Consequently, it is concluded that the effective conduct of sustainable flood management at the national level in South Korea requires a recognition of the context of flood management, cooperation and information sharing about flooding, and social learning and change, all of which can be achieved through the active participation of stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessment of climate change on any hydrological system requires higher temporal resolution at hourly or less in terms of time scale. This paper implements the Bartlett-Lewis Rectangular Pulses (BLRP) model coupled with a proportional adjusting procedure to disaggregate daily rainfall to hourly rainfall in order to demonstrate the reliability of this method. Three stations in northwestern England have been selected that represent different climates in the region. Parameters estimation of the BLRP model has been performed under different levels of hourly rainfall aggregation for a combination of rainfall statistics. The HYETOS model, which applies BLRP, reproduced standard statistics such as mean, variance, Lag-1, autocorrelation as well as dry proportions. Moreover, the model was proven to have the capability to disaggregate the rainfall extremes. The fitted BLRP model could then be used to disaggregate future daily rainfall in order to investigate the climate change impact of different rainfall intensities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the first basin-wide assessment of the potential impact of climate change on the hydrology and production of the Ganges system, undertaken as part of the World Bank's Ganges Strategic Basin Assessment. A series of modeling efforts -- downscaling of climate projections, water balance calculations, hydrological simulation and economic optimization -- inform the assessment. We find that projections of precipitation across the basin, obtained from 16 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change-recognized General Circulation Models are highly variable, and lead to considerable differences in predictions of mean flows in the main stem of the Ganges and its tributaries. Despite uncertainties in predicted future flows, they are not, however, outside the range of natural variability in this basin, except perhaps at the tributary or sub-catchment levels. We also find that the hydropower potential associated with a set of 23 large dams in Nepal remains high across climate models, largely because annual flow in the tributary rivers greatly exceeds the storage capacities of these projects even in dry scenarios. The additional storage and smoothing of flows provided by these infrastructures translates into enhanced water availability in the dry season, but the relative value of this water for the purposes of irrigation in the Gangetic plain, and for low flow augmentation to Bangladesh under climate change, is unclear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many areas of the world, particularly in arid regions or in areas experiencing population growth, there is increased competition over scarce water resources. This is likely to increase in the future due to continued popu- lation growth, urban expansion and the challenge of the impact of climate change on water resource availability. In this context, groundwater is likely to play a pivotal role in facing water scarcity. When different users share a common-pool resource, basic rules are usually established to manage access to the resource and ensure balance between demand and supply. Water authorities worldwide are increasingly paying added attention towards regulating the use of groundwater because of its strategic value, e.g. in times of drought or as a natural reserve. In the case of groundwater, although regulatory measures exist, they are often difficult to enforce. This paper explores the situation with a discussion of two aspects: first (and in line with this special issue on water ethics), an examination of the fundamental individual values that underpin behavior in relation to water use, and second, an investigation of the typologies of unauthorized water use, its main potential impacts, potential root causes and reflections on imperfect institutions and social norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is one of the drivers of change in the Ganges River Basin, together with population growth, economic development and water management practices. These changing circumstances have a significant impact on key social and economic sectors of the basin, largely through changes in water quantity, quality and timing of availability. This paper evaluates the impact of water on changing circumstances in three sectors of the Ganges Basin - agriculture, ecosystems and energy. Given the inherent interconnectedness of these core sectors and the cross-cutting impact of changing circumstances on water resources, we argue that adaptation should not be viewed as a separate initiative, but rather as a goal and perspective incorporated into every level of planning and decision making. Adaptation to changing circumstances will need to be closely linked to water resource management and will require significant collaboration across the sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Governance has been identified by many scholars as a challenge to managing natural resources in a sustainable way. In addition, climate change is impacting natural resources, and complicating management. In light of these concerns, it is important that key characteristics of sustainable management are not ignored. Scientific legitimacy, an integrative ecosystem approach, long-term monitoring and pro-active governance are all important characteristics of successful sustainable management plans. However, these characteristics have not all been included in the day-to-day functioning of the International Joint Commission. This paper looks specifically at the key characteristics required for sustainable management of transboundary water resources and determines if the International Joint Commission, and particularly the International Rainy Lake Board of Control, are applying them to policies for regulation and management of border waters shared by Ontario (Canada) and Minnesota (USA). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water has always been the key element of human development, quality of life, and transportation in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). While seemingly abundant when irrigation was first developed in the 19th Century, today many PNW rivers are fully allocated, leading to conflict in times of drought, a situation which may be exacerbated by the effects of climate change. In the PNW, water is managed by an array of Federal, State, and non-governmental entities, each with its own perspective and mission. This paper discusses the relative merits of solutions based on supporting market mechanisms through improved definition of water rights on the one hand, and authoritative mandates on the other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]