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Introduction: Bitter taste receptors (T2Rs) are G protein-coupled receptors identified on the tongue but expressed all over the body, including in airway cilia and macrophages, where T2Rs serve an immune role. T2R isoforms detect bitter metabolites (quinolones and acyl-homoserine lactones) secreted by gram negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a major pathogen in cystic fibrosis (CF). T2R activation by bitter bacterial products triggers calcium-dependent nitric oxide (NO) production. In airway cells, the NO increases mucociliary clearance and has direct antibacterial properties. In macrophages, the same pathway enhances phagocytosis. Because prior studies linked CF with reduced NO, we hypothesized that CF cells may have reduced T2R/NO responses, possibly contributing to reduced innate immunity in CF. Methods: Immunofluorescence, qPCR, and live cell imaging were used to measure T2R localization, calcium and NO signaling, ciliary beating, and antimicrobial responses in air-liquid interface cultures of primary human nasal epithelial cells and immortalized bronchial cell lines. Immunofluorescence and live cell imaging was used to measure T2R signaling and phagocytosis in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. Results: Primary nasal epithelial cells from both CF and non-CF patients exhibited similar T2R expression, localization, and calcium signals. However, CF cells exhibited reduced NO production also observed in immortalized CFBE41o-CF cells and non-CF 16HBE cells CRISPR modified with CF-causing mutations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). NO was restored by VX-770/VX-809 corrector/potentiator pre-treatment, suggesting reduced NO in CF cells is due to loss of CFTR function. In nasal cells, reduced NO correlated with reduced ciliary and antibacterial responses. In primary human macrophages, inhibition of CFTR reduced NO production and phagocytosis during T2R stimulation. Conclusions: Together, these data suggest an intrinsic deficiency in T2R/NO signaling caused by loss of CFTR function that may contribute to intrinsic susceptibilities of CF patients to P. aeruginosa and other gram-negative bacteria that activate T2Rs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bitter taste receptors (T2Rs) are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) expressed in various cell types including ciliated airway epithelial cells and macrophages. T2Rs in these two innate immune cell types are activated by bitter products, including those secreted by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, leading to Ca2+-dependent activation of endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase (eNOS). NO enhances mucociliary clearance and has direct antibacterial effects in ciliated epithelial cells. NO also increases phagocytosis by macrophages. Using biochemistry and live-cell imaging, we explored the role of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) in regulating T2R-dependent NO pathways in primary sinonasal epithelial cells, primary monocyte-derived macrophages, and a human bronchiolar cell line (H441). Immunofluorescence showed that H441 cells express eNOS and T2Rs and that the bitter agonist denatonium benzoate activates NO production in a Ca2+- and HSP90-dependent manner in cells grown either as submerged cultures or at the air–liquid interface. In primary sinonasal epithelial cells, we determined that HSP90 inhibition reduces T2R-stimulated NO production and ciliary beating, which likely limits pathogen clearance. In primary monocyte-derived macrophages, we found that HSP-90 is integral to T2R-stimulated NO production and phagocytosis of FITC-labeled Escherichia coli and pHrodo-Staphylococcus aureus. Our study demonstrates that HSP90 serves as an innate immune modulator by regulating NO production downstream of T2R signaling by augmenting eNOS activation without impairing upstream Ca2+ signaling. These findings suggest that HSP90 plays an important role in airway antibacterial innate immunity and may be an important target in airway diseases such as chronic rhinosinusitis, asthma, or cystic fibrosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bitter (T2R) and sweet (T1R) taste receptors in the airway are important in innate immune defense, and variations in taste receptor functionality in one T2R (T2R38) correlate with disease status and disease severity in chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). Quinine is a bitter compound that is an agonist for several T2Rs also expressed on sinonasal cells, but not for T2R38. Because of this property, quinine may stimulate innate immune defense mechanisms in the airway, and functional differences in quinine perception may be reflective of disease status in CRS. Methods: Demographic and taste intensity data were collected prospectively from CRS patients and non-CRS control subjects. Sinonasal tissue from patients undergoing rhinologic surgery was also collected and grown at an air--liquid interface (ALI). Nitric oxide (NO) production and dynamic regulation of ciliary beat frequency in response to quinine stimulation were assessed in vitro. results: Quinine reliably increased ciliary beat frequency and NO production in ALI cultures in a manner consistent with T2R activation (p < 0.01). Quinine taste intensity rating was performed in 328 CRS patients and 287 control subjects demonstrating that CRS with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) patients rated quinine as significantly less intense than did control subjects. conclusion: Quinine stimulates airway innate immune defenses by increasing ciliary beat frequency and stimulating NO production in a manner fitting with T2R activation. Patient variability in quinine sensitivity is observed in taste intensity ratings, and gustatory quinine "insensitivity" is associated with CRSwNP status. Thus, taste tests for quinine may be a biomarker for CRSwNP, and topical quinine has therapeutic potential as a stimulant of innate defenses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic rhinosinusitis has a significant impact on patient quality of life, creates billions of dollars of annual healthcare costs, and accounts for ~20% of adult antibiotic prescriptions in the United States. Because of the rise of resistant microorganisms, there is a critical need to better understand how to stimulate and/or enhance innate immune responses as a therapeutic modality to treat respiratory infections. We recently identified bitter taste receptors (taste family type 2 receptors, or T2Rs) as important regulators of sinonasal immune responses and potentially important therapeutic targets. Here, we examined the immunomodulatory potential of flavones, a class of flavonoids previously demonstrated to have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects. Some flavones are also T2R agonists. We found that several flavones inhibit Muc5AC and inducible NOS up-regulation as well as cytokine release in primary and cultured airway cells in response to several inflammatory stimuli. This occurs at least partly through inhibition of protein kinase C and receptor tyrosine kinase activity. We also demonstrate that sinonasal ciliated epithelial cells express T2R14, which closely co-localizes (<7 nm) with the T2R38 isoform. Heterologously expressed T2R14 responds to multiple flavones. These flavones also activate T2R14-driven calcium signals in primary cells that activate nitric oxide production to increase ciliary beating and mucociliary clearance. TAS2R38 polymorphisms encode functional (PAV: proline, alanine, and valine at positions 49, 262, and 296, respectively) or nonfunctional (AVI: alanine, valine, isoleucine at positions 49, 262, and 296, respectively) T2R38. Our data demonstrate that T2R14 in sinonasal cilia is a potential therapeutic target for upper respiratory infections and that flavones may have clinical potential as topical therapeutics, particularly in T2R38 AVI/AVI individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]