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Agricultural policy issues play an outsized role in the race for the presidency if only because the primary season begins in Iowa, where corn is king, and other rural states such as New Hampshire and South Carolina. On a bipartisan basis, almost every candidate, including President Donald Trump, supports current price and income-support policies, the federal crop insurance program, and soil and other conservation initiatives that direct substantial taxpayer-funded payments to farm businesses. The major difference is that most of the Democratic candidates seek to shift such payments toward small and medium-sized farms and away from large-scale agribusiness farms. The candidates for the Democratic Party's nomination do differ on agricultural trade policy. Mayor Mike Bloomberg is the only candidate whose support for free trade is unequivocal. Some candidates, including former Vice President Joe Biden, Sen. Amy Klobuchar, and Sen. Elizabeth Warren, have supported some trade agreements with other countries (e.g., the recent US-Mexico-Canada Agreement) but would only support further trade agreements if they imposed implausibly stringent conditions regarding environmental, worker-safety, and other regulations in the countries with which the agreements are signed. Sen. Bernie Sanders seems generally opposed to any trade agreements and in this area seems to have more in common with President Trump, who has been willing to arbitrarily disrupt US access to overseas markets for agricultural products in his trade and foreign policy initiatives. Finally, initiatives to address climate change through reducing carbon emissions are a common theme among all the Democratic candidates. Several, including Biden, Sanders, and Warren, have essentially adopted the Green New Deal as their climate change initiative while, somewhat inconsistently given ethanol's impacts on carbon emissions, supporting the renewable fuels standards for ethanol and other biofuels. Bloomberg is a notable exception, viewing biofuels as problematic but supporting substantial reductions in the use of carbon fuel. In stark contrast, President Trump has aggressively terminated many of the Obama administration's climate change initiatives and, at least ostensibly, viewed climate change as of no concern for his administration., Presidential politics involves the construction of complex policy concoctions that enable candidates to appeal to sufficiently broad swaths of voters to win supporters, donations, votes, primaries, and, ultimately, the presidency. [...]

Two polls that asked about the Green New Deal soon after it was announced in February show that many Americans are not familiar with it or do not have opinions [...]

This article presents an analysis of the economic and environmental consequences of implementing the international community's pledges for targets or actions to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. In the conference of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in December 2009, countries gathered under the UNFCCC took note of the Copenhagen Accord. The accord, a political agreement on climate change, recognizes the scientific view that the increase in average global temperature should be below 2 degrees Centigrade.

Since the creation of the GEF, about $2.5 billion has been allocated to climate change projects. These resources have leveraged an estimated additional $15 billion in financing, and resulted in over one billion tons of GHG emissions avoided. Altogether, the GEF has supported more than 30 technologies in the years of its existence. The following sections illustrate the range of those technologies as well as some lessons learned. MITIGATION: ENERGY-EFFICIENCY TECHNOLOGIES Table 1 summarizes the energy-efficiency technologies and technology sectors that the GEF has supported in various countries. This is not to claim that all of these technologies have been successfully transferred, but rather that the countries listed have expressed interest in growing markets for them. In some cases, technology transfer has been successful, while in others, barriers remain to market maturation. Efficient Lighting Since the mid-1990s, the GEF has supported the dissemination of efficient lighting technologies in more than two dozen countries. The types of intervention include sector-specific lighting initiatives, utility demand-side management (DSM) programs, energy efficiency standards and appliance labeling, and building codes and standards. Achievements of GEF-funded projects include: (1) major transformation of the efficient lighting market in the residential sector; (2) significant project replication and extension, both in the countries themselves and in surrounding countries; (3) significant benefits for consumers in cost savings and improved product quality; and (4) development of capacity for DSM and energy efficiency within government institutions. The GEF has also launched a global efficient lighting initiative, approved by the Council in 2007, to accelerate the phase-out of inefficient lighting through UNEP and UNDP, while it is extending support to more countries and programs at the national level. Energy-Efficient Appliances The GEF has built a portfolio promoting energy-efficient appliances and technologies in developing countries. GEF-supported interventions typically focus on instituting energy-efficiency standards and labels, consumer education, and testing and certification of appliances. In countries where there is substantial manufacturing capacity, the GEF has also supported enterprises in developing new energy-efficient appliance models and in acquiring technical information and knowledge from more advanced countries. In Tunisia, for example, 10 of 12 local appliance manufacturers are offering more energy-efficient models. In China, the GEF project to promote energy-efficient refrigerators adopted a two-pronged approach--technology push and market pull. Technology push is achieved through technical assistance to refrigerator and compressor manufacturers, technology upgrades, and designer training programs, while market pull is achieved through the promulgation of energy-efficiency standards. Participating refrigerator manufacturers improved their average energy efficiency by 23 percent between 1999 and 2003. The market's response--increased sales of top-rated energy-efficient refrigerators from 360,000 to 4.8 million units--helped drive increased production capacity. Industrial Energy-Efficiency Technologies The GEF has funded more than 30 projects in the industrial sector to promote technology upgrading and the adoption and diffusion of energy-efficient technologies. Some projects focus on the development of market mechanisms such as energy service companies, the creation of dedicated financing instruments, and technical assistance to stimulate investments in new technologies. Other projects identify one or more sub-sectors and specific technologies to promote. The range of industries includes construction materials (brick, cement, and glass), steel, cokemaking, foundry, paper, ceramics, textiles, food and beverage, tea, rubber, and wood. A number of projects also promote energy-efficient equipment such as boilers, motors, and pumps, as well as cogeneration in the industrial sector. In some projects, the GEF has promoted South-South technology transfer, as in the transfer of energy-efficient brick kiln technology from China to Bangladesh. The technology was developed, adopted, and disseminated in China, and is being transferred to Bangladesh. District Heating Systems The GEF has financed projects to promote energy-efficient district heating in more than 20 countries, most of them in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, but also in China and Mongolia. Most of these projects involve demonstrating technologies and practices that improve the technical and operating efficiency of heat and hot water supply; creating enabling policies and regulations; and facilitating access to financing and investment. Some of the projects in Eastern Europe have also led to switching fuel from coal to biomass. High-Efficiency Boilers The China Efficient Industrial Boilers project received a $32.8 million grant from the GEF to (1) upgrade existing boiler models by introducing advanced combustion systems and auxiliary equipment from developed countries; (2) adopt new high-efficiency boiler models by introducing modern manufacturing techniques and boiler designs; and (3) provide technical assistance and training for boiler producers and consumers. Completed in 2004, the project successfully supported international technology transfer of boiler technologies that benefited nine boiler manufacturers and nine boiler auxiliary equipment makers. With GEF support, the Chinese manufacturers acquired advanced efficient boiler technologies, built prototypes, and began commercial production. Through technical assistance, the project also led to the revision and formulation of national and sector standards while it strengthened the technical capacity of the Chinese boiler sector. Energy-Efficient CFC-Free Chillers In several countries, including Thailand, Brazil, and India, GEF support has aimed to accelerate the replacement of old CFC-based chillers with CFC-free energy-efficient models. These projects have also created synergy, pooling the resources of the GEF and the Multilateral Fund under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. In Thailand, a GEF project successfully demonstrated the technical feasibility, financial viability, and benefits of chiller replacement. Financial return from energy savings and reduction of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) and GHGs have exceeded expectations, and replication and market transformation have taken place rapidly post-project. MITIGATION: RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES From 1991 to 2007, the GEF approved grants totaling more than $800 million for approximately 150 projects that promote the transfer of renewable energy technologies in developing and transition countries (Table 2). Off-Grid Photovoltaics Since its inception, the GEF has helped deploy renewable energy technologies to those lacking access to electricity--and to those whose use of kerosene for lighting and wood for cooking produces GHG emissions. As these people often live in remote areas, expansion of the power grid is neither cost effective nor affordable by governments. In response to this need, the GEF funded a number of projects that provided access to electricity through the use of Solar Home Systems (SHS). Several lessons have emerged from these projects, including: the importance of the technical quality of the SHSs; the need to raise awareness of the technology; the importance of system maintenance and business infrastructure; and the need for sustainable financing in appropriate instruments. Though solar photovoltaics (PVs) and SHSs are a least-cost option for remote electricity supply, they are not necessarily affordable to those who need them. In such a case, financing is needed according to customers' ability and willingness to pay for the services provided. The Transformation of the Rural Photovoltaic Market in Tanzania project was designed to incorporate the lessons learned from earlier rural PV projects. Reports indicate that this project has contributed to the removal of taxes and VAT on all PV components. Standards and a code of practice have been approved and are now in place. A Rural Energy Agency has been put in place and a Rural Energy Master Plan has been developed. PV awareness among key government decision makers at district level has been raised through a series of seminars. Most importantly, the private sector has been responsive to the project and a PV curriculum has been adopted by the Vocational Education and Training Authority of Tanzania. Technicians have been trained in sizing, installing, repairing, and maintaining the systems, 60 percent of which are operational. Financial models for supply-chain and consumer financing are being developed to increase the number of consumers and companies that request financing for their PV investments. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Solar Water Heaters Although solar water heater technology is sometimes considered simple, that perception can be misleading. The quality of the fittings, the solar collectors, and the installation has substantial impact on satisfactory operation. Accordingly, inexpensive materials, poor workmanship, and shoddy installation have often resulted in nonfunctional units and abandonment of installations. The GEF's experience has shown that knowledgeable staff and the observance of high standards are critical to the successful dissemination of this technology. In Morocco, for example, early solar water heaters tended to be of low quality. As a result, they fell into disuse and the market languished. Through a GEF project, the older nonfunctioning installations were repaired; new higher-quality standards were adopted; and technicians and staff were trained to ensure future installations would be of satisfactory quality. In addition, to encourage production and sale of the higher-quality units, a subsidy was offered to early adopters of water heaters meeting the new standard. These initiatives revived the market, which is now growing rapidly, along with the industry as a whole. On-Grid Photovoltaics The GEF-supported CEPALCO Distributed Generation PV Plant in the Philippines aimed to demonstrate PV's effectiveness in addressing distribution system capacity challenges. A 1-MW distributed-generation PV power plant was built and integrated into the 80-MW distribution network of the Cagayan de Oro Electric Power & Light Company (CEPALCO), a private utility on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. The PV system operates in conjunction with a 7-MW hydroelectric plant with dynamic load control, enabling the joint PV/hydro resource to reduce distribution-level and system-level demand, effectively providing reliable generating capacity. The PV plant helped postpone the need for additional substation installations in the distribution system for up to three years, reducing the need for CEPALCO to purchase additional thermal-plant-based power and reducing its GHG emissions. More importantly, the plant provides the first full-scale demonstration of the environmental and, ultimately, economic benefits of the conjunctive use of hydro- and PV-based power and represents the first significant use of grid-connected PV in a developing country. This project marks significant progress toward solving the storage issue faced by many renewable energy technologies. If conjunctive use allows current hydro facilities to be used for storage, many renewables, including PV and wind, can be viewed in combination as a "firm hybrid"--a completely renewable source of power. Wind Power The GEF has supported a variety of wind energy projects around the world. Experience has shown that resource availability as well as familiarity with the technology are important considerations. However, the most significant barriers to successful growth in the wind market are the regulations on renewable generators' access to the grid and the incremental costs to distributors of turbine-generated electricity. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Worldwide experience shows several successful approaches to this problem, including the creation of a renewable portfolio standard and a guaranteed renewable "feed-in" tariff. The GEF has helped countries understand and adopt these regulations. In Mexico, for example, GEF agencies provided: (1) support to assist in improving windspeed measurements; (2) training and capacity building; and (3) regulatory changes that provide a "green energy" fund to help pay the incremental costs of renewable generation. One of the most visible and successful GEF projects supporting the fledgling market for wind energy in developing countries is the China: Renewable Energy Scale Up Program (CRESP). It adopted a programmatic approach to secure long-term structural change and provided support for the creation of the Chinese Renewable Energy Law in 2007, which included an important renewable portfolio provision. The main global benefits of the project are: (1) the removal of multiple barriers to the introduction of cost-effective renewables, especially wind energy, in China; (2) the reduction in cost and improvement in performance of small hydro, wind, and selected biomass technologies; and (3) increased market penetration by renewables, with subsequent reduction in GHG emissions from power generation. It is estimated that by 2010 the scale-up will result in incremental annual production of electricity from renewable sources of 38 terawatt hours (Twh), equivalent to about 7.9 gigawatts (GW) of installed capacity. The carbon savings of the project are estimated at 187 metric tons (MtC). China now hosts the world's sixth largest wind energy market, with an estimated installed capacity of 2.6 GW, a figure that doubled during 2006. Geothermal Energy The GEF has supported a number of projects to help countries exploit their geothermal energy potential. This experience has shown that, in addition to the barriers to access of renewable energy generators to the grid, an additional--and especially difficult --barrier is the cost of confirming the presence and location of exploitable geothermal resources. Traditionally, each site is confirmed exploitable by drilling--at a cost of up to several million dollars. To deal with this barrier, the GEF has established several contingent funding mechanisms to reimburse the costs of drilling nonproductive wells. A more recent approach to this barrier is found in the Joint Geophysical Imaging for Geothermal Reservoir Assessment project in Kenya. In this project, advanced geophysical imaging techniques have been used to locate commercially exploitable geothermal power in Kenya and East Africa. Microseismic event sensing, electromagnetic sensing of lightning strikes, and Earth's magnetic field help locate steam trapped in fractures underground. Results to date indicate that wells targeted using this approach, when combined with directional drilling, yield 4 to 6 MW per well as opposed to the previous 2 MW per well. The success rate for test wells has also improved, as has targeting of wells for re-injection of spent geothermal fluid--which creates sustainable geothermal field output over time. This will result in substantial savings for the planned development of 512 MW from geothermal resources in Kenya. The project has helped establish sustainable, world-class capacity using these advanced techniques at KenGen's Olkaria facility; KenGen is now able to provide these services to other countries in the region. Waste to Energy A number of projects have supported utilization of methane from municipal waste, either from solid wastes in landfills or from liquid biological wastes. Many of these projects have qualified for GEF support as both renewable energy projects and short-term response measures because of their cost-effectiveness. The GEF played a role in helping increase the uptake of these technologies; now its support is no longer needed, as the projects are eligible and highly profitable when implemented under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The India Biomethanation project, proposed in the early 1990s, addressed endogenous capacity in India to adapt and replicate biogas technology for industrial wastes. A pre-existing challenge was that biological waste from agroprocessing and related industries deposited substantial quantities of methane and other pollutants into nearby waters. The project's intent was to produce the methane in a controlled environment, capture it, and use it to produce energy. The GEF project supported capacity building at five national R&D laboratories and other institutions that were involved in the project as a network. In addition, the GEF co-financed more than a dozen demonstration units in a variety of industries, including agroprocessing, pulp and paper, tanneries, slaughterhouses, rice mills, and commercial dairies. These capacity building activities were successful and sustainable, and the demonstration units clearly indicated which industries could reach the highest levels of GHG abatement. The project also clearly illustrated the need to continue after the initial development or local adaptation of a technology. When suitable technologies have been identified and tested, it is vitally important to continue to the dissemination stage. Systematic integration into national policy, coupled with the buildup of a national industry, provides the equipment and services needed for sustainable production and dissemination. Mini- and Micro-Hydro Power Small hydro is a mature technology, but it is not well disseminated. The GEF has supported this technology around the world from early on and has identified several barriers to its adoption, including lack of information about the technology and about the resource; unsupportive institutional frameworks; regulatory obstacles; and absent or inadequate financing. One promising project is The Integrated Micro-Hydro Development and Application Program in Indonesia, which aims to reduce GHG emissions from fossil fuel-based power generation. This will require accelerating the development of micro-hydro resources and optimizing their utilization by eliminating or reducing current barriers. The four main outcomes of the project are expected to be: enhanced private-sector interest and involvement in capacity building in the micro-hydro business community; capacity building in small residential communities to increase micro-hydro utilization; improved local knowledge and availability of the technology and its applications; and increased implementation of micro-hydro projects for electricity and productive purposes. The project targets a cumulative GHG reduction of 304 kilotons of CO2; the establishment of at least 40 community-based micro-hydro projects for productive use each year; and cumulatively, in 3 years, 130 gigawatt hours (GWh) produced, with 100 GWh sold. Biomass Cogeneration Biomass waste from agricultural and forestry production can provide significant energy for heat and electricity generation. Typically consisting of either crop residues or sawmill waste, biomass can provide opportunities for carbon-neutral energy production, as the CO2 released through combustion is originally grown and fixed as part of a closed cycle. If this energy source is used instead of fossil fuels, the benefits are even greater. Common barriers to biomass waste utilization are the regulatory framework's non-recognition or inadequate acceptance of small-scale renewable generators and lack of financing, technology, and information. The GEF has supported a number of projects that have contributed to the cogeneration of heat and electricity using biomass residues. One instance is The Removal of Barriers to Biomass Power Generation and Cogeneration in Thailand project, which is helping local commercial partners reduce 4 million tons of GHGs (carbon equivalent) by accelerating the growth of biomass cogeneration and power generation technologies to replace fossil fuel consumption. The project: (1) builds capacity to provide information and services to potential biomass project investors; (2) improves the regulatory framework to provide financial incentives for biomass cogeneration and power projects; (3) increases access to commercial financing for these projects; and (4) facilitates the implementation of two initial biomass power pilot plants by supporting commercial guarantees. The project generates 65,520 megawatt hours (MWh) of electricity annually from renewable energy. Heat from Biomass Issues related to the use of agricultural and forestry wastes to generate heat are similar to those related to biomass cogeneration. In both cases, changes in the regulations governing heating networks are required. And in both cases, such projects can improve overall resource-use efficiency and reduce GHG emissions. The Economic and Cost-Effective Use of Wood Waste for Municipal Heating Systems in Latvia project addresses several of these issues. The project aims to: (1) promote the use of wood waste by removing or reducing barriers to replacing imported heavy fuel oil (mazut) with local, sustainably produced wood waste in municipal heating systems; (2) promote the development and implementation of an economical, commercially run, municipal heating system, providing generation, transmission, and distribution in the municipality of Ludza; and (3) help remove or reduce technical, legislative, institutional, organizational, economic, information-related, and financial barriers related to the replication of a pilot project in the municipality. Since project inception, 11,200 tons of CO2 emissions have been avoided annually in Ludza, accounting for about 80 percent of the emissions from using heating oil. The project and the financial scheme developed through the project have encouraged more than 12 other municipalities to make use of forest wastes in their district heating networks, resulting in over 100,000 tons of CO2 avoided annually. GEF funding was $0.75 million, with $2.73 million in co-financing. Biomass Gasification for Electricity The biomass gasification process has been known for many years. Historically, the technology has faced an engineering challenge in the need to clean the gases to prevent obstructions in the system. New gasifiers are becoming more effective at solving this issue. Especially in rural areas where biomass residues are plentiful, this provides a promising new opportunity for generating electricity. There are signs of success in the Biomass for Rural India project, which aims to develop and implement a GHG-reducing bioenergy technology package that will provide a sustainable and participatory approach that meets village energy needs. The project is implemented mainly in 24 villages in Karnataka's Tumkur district. Project goals include: (1) demonstrating the technical feasibility and financial viability of bioenergy technologies-including biomass gasification for power generation--on a significant scale; (2) building capacity and developing mechanisms for project implementation, management, and monitoring; (3) developing financial, institutional, and market strategies to overcome barriers to large-scale replication of the bioenergy package for decentralized applications; and (4) disseminating bioenergy technology and relevant information on a large scale. The project has stimulated significant forest growth in the form of energy plantations (2,965 acres), forest regeneration (2,100 acres), and tree-based farming (about 2,471 acres) by villagers. The wood is used to generate electricity in locally manufactured gasifiers. The power generated is sold to the regional electrical distribution company to supply the local population. The project has also resulted in 171 families replacing fuel wood with biogas--reducing GHG emissions by 256 tons annually over the past 3 years. MITIGATION: NEW LOW-GHG-EMITTING ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES The GEF's objective in this field was to provide support for early technology demonstrations in developing countries (Table 3). Increased experience with these technologies accelerates reductions in the cost of subsequent installations. The most significant technology to receive support has been Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technology. Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) The GEF, together with India, Mexico, Morocco, and Egypt, developed a portfolio of four CSP demonstration plants. The projects built solar fields, typically of 30 megawatts (MW), as part of hybrid gas-turbine plants. Successful hybridization of the gas turbine and the solar power plants would enable the projects to dispatch power at will, making them more economically attractive. However, the projects have progressed very slowly, indicating that the technology did not meet with the enthusiastic uptake originally anticipated. Only recently have new plants been planned and constructed in developed countries, most notably in Spain, where generous incentives were provided through a high feed-in tariff for solar energy. Now, spurred by these activities in developed countries, the projects in Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco are moving forward. One lesson from these experiences is that it is difficult for developing countries to adopt technologies from developed countries that are not fully commercialized. Failure to achieve market viability in developed countries damages the technology's credibility elsewhere. In the case of the CSP plants, construction costs increased as the projects progressed. Host countries were burdened with both additional costs and the risk that the projects might not produce the rated power on a firm basis. In fact, in two cases, the additional costs exceeded the GEF's funding. Both countries have had to provide significant cash subsidies to enable the plants to move forward. In the future, projects of this sort should look to multi-country partnerships for information and experience sharing. MITIGATION: TRANSPORT SECTOR TECHNOLOGIES The GEF program on sustainable transport was approved by the Council in 2000. It combines support for new technologies with efforts to remove barriers to well-established technologies that are not disseminating well. The technologies and countries where GEF has supported activities are in Table 4. Fuel-Cell Buses When the operational program on sustainable transport was approved in 2000, fuel-cell buses were included as eligible under that program. A portfolio of fuel-cell bus projects in Brazil, China, Egypt, India, and Mexico was developed. All five were approved by the GEF Council, but three faced limited industry interest in the form of limited or no response at the "expressions of interest" stage of the procurement process. In the end, the projects in Egypt, India, and Mexico were cancelled. Of the two projects that progressed to implementation, China was the first to receive buses; they have been in operation since 2004. Brazil also received buses, which appear to be operating well. However, it is not clear that either project will lead to a sustainable fuel-cell bus industry absent rapid advances in the technology and reductions in the production costs of hydrogen. MITIGATION: THE SHORT-TERM WINDOW The Short-Term Window in climate change was established to support opportunities that were considered "too good to refuse" (Table 5). Projects were eligible if they yielded $10/ton of CO2-equivalent avoided. Coalbed and Coal Mine Methane Coal deposits yield a significant amount of methane, which is released to the atmosphere when coal is mined. Because methane (CH4) is a GHG with a Global Warming Potential (GWP) more than 20 times that of CO2, using it as fuel offers several benefits: (1) it converts the CH4 back to less harmful CO2; (2) it reduces CH4 presence in the atmosphere, and (3) it reduces dependence on other fossil fuels. The GEF has supported coalbed and coal mine methane projects in China, Russia, and India. In China, the project led to the creation of the National Coalbed Mining Authority, which has fostered methane tapping and is utilizing joint venture investments in several large coal deposit areas. The process is similar to that of tapping and utilizing natural gas, and holds promise for improving China's gas reserves. TABLE 1. Energy-efficiency technologies and countries supported by the GEF Energy-efficiency technology Countries supported Efficient lighting (compact Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, fluorescent lamps, efficient China, Czech Republic, Egypt, Ghana, street lighting, light-emitting Hungary, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, diodes, etc.) Latvia, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, South Africa, Thailand, Uruguay, Vietnam Energy-efficient appliances Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, (refrigerators, air China, Cuba, India, Indonesia, conditioners, washers, dryers, Kenya, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, cookers, stoves, etc.) Thailand, Tunisia, Vietnam Energy-efficient building design Belarus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Cote d'Ivoire, Czech Republic, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Mauritius, Morocco, Senegal, Tunisia Energy-efficient building Bangladesh, Bosnia-Herzegovina, materials (windows, doors, China, Mongolia, Pakistan, Poland perforated bricks, straw bales, etc.) Industrial energy-efficiency Bangladesh, Belarus, Bulgaria, technologies (steel, China, Costa Rica, Cote d'Ivoire, El brickmaking, cement, ceramics, Salvador, Honduras, Hungary, India, textile, foundry, rubber, wood, Iran, Macedonia, Malaysia, Morocco, coke making, tea processing, food Nicaragua, Panama, Philippines, processing, pulp and paper, Poland, Tunisia, Vietnam charcoal production, etc.) District heating systems Armenia, Belarus, Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Slovenia, Slovak Republic, Ukraine, Poland, Turkmenistan, Romania, Russia, Uzbekistan Power generation Brazil, China, Ecuador, Guinea, (rehabilitation) and India, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Syria distribution Cogeneration (including heat China, Czech Republic, Ethiopia, recovery for power generation Kenya, Malawi, Swaziland, Tanzania, from industrial processes) Uganda, Sudan, Russia Energy-efficient motors Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Poland, Thailand, Pakistan, Vietnam Energy-efficient boilers China, Poland, Russia Energy-efficient CFC-free Brazil, Colombia, India, Thailand chillers TABLE 2. Renewable energy technologies and countries supported by the GEF Renewable technology Countries supported Off-grid photovoltaics (PVs) Bangladesh, Bolivia, Botswana, Burkina Faso, China, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Ghana, India, Kenya, Lesotho, Morocco, Malawi, Namibia, Nepal, Peru, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe On-grid PVs India, Mexico, Philippines, (also considered as OP7) Solar water heating Albania, Algeria, Chile, India, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco, South Africa, Tunisia Wind turbines Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Costa Rica, Cuba, El Salvador, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala, Honduras, Iran, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Korea DPR, Madagascar, Mauritania, Mexico, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Russian Federation, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tunisia, Uruguay Geothermal Armenia, Bulgaria, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Hungary, Kenya, Lithuania, Philippines, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkey, Ukraine, Tanzania, Uganda Methane from waste (mixed China, Czech Republic, Jordan, municipal and/or liquid Latvia, Mexico, Uruguay (some also biological) qualified under STRM; see below) Small hydro Benin, Bhutan, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Congo DR, Gabon, Haiti, Hungary, Indonesia, Macedonia, Mali, Montenegro, Nicaragua, Rwanda, Togo Biomass cogeneration Hungary, Malaysia, Thailand Biomass boilers (heat Belarus, China, Egypt, India, Kenya, production) Latvia, Poland, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Sri Lanka Biomass gasification for Chile, India, Uruguay electricity TABLE 3. Low-GHG-emitting energy generating technologies and countries supported by the GEF Low-GHG-emitting energy technology Countries supported Biomass-integrated gasification Brazil combined-cycle generation Building-integrated photovoltaic power Malaysia production Concentrating solar power production Egypt, Morocco, Mexico Externally fired combined-cycle generation Brazil Microturbine cogeneration Indonesia On-grid PV power production Mexico, Philippines Stationary fuel-cell power generation South Africa TABLE 4. Transport sector technologies and countries supported by the GEF Transport technology Countries supported Bicycle paths, non-motorized Botswana, Chile, Nicaragua, Peru, transit Philippines, Poland, Vietnam Bus-rapid transit systems Argentina, Brazil, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Dedicated bus lanes Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Iran, Mexico, Peru, South Africa Electric three-wheelers India Hybrid buses Egypt Hydrogen-based fuel-cell buses Brazil, China Traffic demand management Argentina, Brazil, Ghana, Mexico TABLE 5. Technologies as short-term response measures (STRM) and countries supported by the GEF Short-term response technology Countries supported Coalbed methane/coal mine methane China, India, Russia Coal-to-gas conversion Poland Landfill gas utilization China, India, Jordan, Latvia, Uruguay (also included above in OP6 Table) LPG substitution Yemen Natural gas system leakage repair China, Venezuela

The threats of climate change have gone beyond environmental concerns--they have now reached a stage where they raise geopolitical concerns due to their potential effect on national boundaries. Given rapidly rising sea levels, coastal states and low-lying areas are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. These regions contain some of the world's highest population densities and most critical infrastructure. In addition to their direct impact on the infrastructure and the livelihood of the populations of these regions, rising sea levels may also bring about new challenges for these states. Namely, as sea levels rise, coastlines may shift or submerge. Some commentators have theorized that this change could lead to claims of altered marine boundaries, which may affect territorial claims between states. The purpose of this paper is to shed light on some of the potential legal implications of such a possible shift in coastlines. The paper notes that if such a shift occurs, it may have grave implications, particularly for developing countries that lack the resources and capacity to address complicated historical and geographic approaches to boundary claims. The paper concludes by recommending that both technical and financial assistance be provided to these developing coastal states and low-lying regions so that they can approach any future territorial and maritime boundary negotiations with the necessary tools., Acknowledgements Acronyms Introduction I. Climate Change: A Multifaceted Challenge II. Potential Implications of Climate Change for Coastal States Rights of Coastal States under UNCLOS Territorial Sea Archipelagic Sea Contiguous Zone [...]

This paper develops a Structural Ricardian model to measure climate change impacts that explicitly models the choice of farm type in African agriculture. This two stage model first estimates the type of farm chosen and then the conditional incomes of each farm type after removing selection biases. The results indicate that increases in temperature encourage farmers to adopt mixed farming and avoid specialized farms such as crop-only or livestock-only farms. Increases in precipitation encourage farmers to shift from irrigated to rainfed crops. As temperatures increase, farm incomes from crop-only farms or livestock-only farms fall whereas incomes from mixed farms increase. With precipitation increases, farm incomes from irrigated farms fall whereas incomes from rainfed farms increase. Naturally, the Structural Ricardian model predicts much smaller impacts than a model that holds farm type fixed. With a hot dry climate scenario, the Structural Ricardian model predicts that farm income will fall 50 percent but the fixed farm type model predicts farm incomes will fall 75 percent., 1. Introduction This paper develops a Structural Ricardian model to measure climate change impacts on agriculture that explicitly captures adaptation decisions by farmers (Seo and Mendelsohn 2007). Many recent studies [...]

The world is faced with considerable risk and uncertainty about climate change. Particular attention has been paid increasingly to hydropower generation in recent years because it is renewable energy. However, hydropower is among the most vulnerable industries to changes in global and regional climate. This paper aims to examine the possibility of applying a simple vector autoregressive model to forecast future hydrological series and evaluate the resulting impact on hydropower projects. Three projects are considered--in India, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. The results are still tentative in terms of both methodology and implications; but the analysis shows that the calibrated dynamic forecasts of hydrological series are much different from the conventional reference points in the 90 percent dependable year. The paper also finds that hydrological discharges tend to increase with rainfall and decrease with temperature. The rainy season would likely have higher water levels, but in the lean season water resources would become even more limited. The amount of energy generated would be affected to a certain extent, but the project viability may not change so much. Comparing the three cases, it is suggested that having larger installed capacity and some storage capacity might be useful to accommodate future hydrological series and seasonality. A broader assessment will be called for at the project preparation stage., I. Introduction Due to increasing carbon dioxide concentrations it is predicted that global warming would have a variety of environmental and socio-economic impacts over the long term. In recent years [...]

Using a comprehensive geo-referenced database of indicators relating to global change and energy, the paper assesses countries' likely attitudes with respect to international treaties that regulate carbon emissions. The authors distinguish between source and impact vulnerability and classify countries according to these dimensions. The findings show clear differences in the factors that determine likely negotiating positions. This analysis and the resulting detailed, country level information help to explain the incentives required to make the establishment of such agreements more likely., This paper--a product of the Sustainable Rural and Urban Development Team, Development Research Group--is part of a larger effort in the department to understand the implications and impacts of climate [...]

The objective of this paper is to determine the ability of farmers in Africa to detect climate change, and to ascertain how they have adapted to whatever climate change they believe has occurred. The paper also asks farmers whether they perceive any barriers to adaptation and attempts to determine the characteristics of those farmers who, despite claiming to have witnessed climate change, have not yet responded to it. The study is based on a large-scale survey of agriculturalists in 11 African countries. The survey reveals that significant numbers of farmers believe that temperatures have already increased and that precipitation has declined. Those with the greatest experience of farming are more likely to notice climate change. Further, neighboring farmers tell a consistent story. There are important differences in the propensity of farmers living in different locations to adapt and there may be institutional impediments to adaptation in some countries. Although large numbers of farmers perceive no barriers to adaptation, those that do perceive them tend to cite their poverty and inability to borrow. Few if any farmers mentioned lack of appropriate seed, security of tenure, or market accessibility as problems. Those farmers who perceive climate change but fail to respond may require particular incentives or assistance to do what is ultimately in their own best interests. Although experienced farmers are more likely to perceive climate change, it is educated farmers who are more likely to respond by making at least one adaptation., SUMMARY It is doubtful whether farmers know immediately what constitutes the best response to climate change when such agricultural practices as it requires are outside their range of experience. Nor [...]

The article presents information on the global environmental concept. Many climatologists believe that increases in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gas emissions are contributing to global warming. In the wake of the concerns over global environmental changes several international policies and treaties were signed.

The article offers information on the different global environmental concepts including the greenhouse effect, the relationship between global warming and greenhouse gases and international policy development in regard to global warming.

The consensus view of scientists is that the build-up of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere is causing global warming. To reduce the probability of severe climate-change impacts and costs occurring, global GHG emissions need to be reduced substantially over coming decades. The United States agreed to a global political agreement to reduce GHG emissions that was acknowledged at Copenhagen (COP15) in December 2009 and negotiations are continuing to work towards binding emissions-reduction commitments by all countries. In view of the scale of emission reductions called for, it is vital that the United States adopt a cost- effective and comprehensive climate change policy. The current Administration is endeavouring to put such a policy package in place. Its core elements are comprehensive pricing of GHG emissions and increased support for the development and deployment of GHG-emissions-reducing technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several charts are presented presenting additional model simulation results aimed at providing more insight on the greenhouse gas emissions and global warming.

The article offers information on the different global environmental concepts including the greenhouse effect, the relationship between global warming and greenhouse gases and international policy development in regard to global warming.

The article provides information on the global environmental condition with regards to the global warming and greenhouse gases, ozone depletion, and environmental toxins.

The article offers information on the global environmental conditions as of 2009 including global warming, greenhouse gases, ozone depletion.

The article discusses several concepts on global environmental changes including greenhouse effect, air pollution, and ozone depletion.

The Clean Development Mechanism, a provision of The Kyoto Protocol, allows countries that have pledged to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to gain credit toward their treaty obligations by investing in projects located in developing (host) countries. Such projects are expected to benefit both parties by providing low-cost abatement opportunities for the investor-country, while facilitating capital and technology flows to the host country. This paper analyzes the Clean Development Mechanism market, emphasizing the cooperation aspects between host and investor countries. The analysis uses a dichotomous (yes/no) variable and three continuous variants to measure the level of cooperation, namely the number of joint projects, the volume of carbon dioxide abatement, and the volume of investment in the projects. The results suggest that economic development, institutional development, the energy structure of the economies, the level of country vulnerability to various climate change effects, and the state of international relations between the host and investor countries are good predictors of the level of cooperation in Clean Development Mechanism projects. The main policy conclusions include the importance of simplifying the project regulation/clearance cycle; improving the governance structure host and investor countries; and strengthening trade or other long-term economic activities that engage the countries., 1. INTRODUCTION The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) (2) has come a long way since its launch in Marrakech in 2001. As of December 31, 2007, 2,966 CDM projects have been [...]

This paper quantifies how African farmers have adapted their crop and irrigation decisions to their farm's current agro-ecological zone. The results indicate that farmers carefully consider the climate and other conditions of their farm when making these choices. These results are then used to forecast how farmers might change their irrigation and crop choice decisions if climate changes. The model predicts African farmers would adopt irrigation more often under a very hot and dry climate scenario but less often with a mild and wet scenario. However, farms in the deserts, lowland humid forest, or mid elevation humid forest would reduce irrigation even in the very hot and dry climate scenario. Area under fruits and vegetables would increase Africa-wide with the very hot and dry climate scenario, except in the lowland semi-arid agro-ecological zone. Millet would increase overall under the mild and wet scenario, but decline substantially in the lowland dry savannah and lowland semi-arid agro-ecological zones. Maize would be chosen less often across all the agro-ecological zones under both climate scenarios. Wheat would decrease across Africa. The authors recommend that care must be taken to match adaptations to local conditions because the optimal adaptation would depend on the agro-ecological zone and the climate scenario., 1. Introduction Awareness of global warming has increased rapidly among scientists, policy makers, and the general public over the past decade (Nordhaus 1992, 2007, IPCC 1996, 2001, 2007). There is [...]

This paper examines the distribution of climate change impacts across the 16 agro-ecological zones in Africa using data from the Food and Agriculture Organization combined with economic survey data from a Global Environment Facility/World Bank project. Net revenue per hectare of cropland is regressed on a set of climate, soil, and socio-economic variables using different econometric specifications "with" and "without" country fixed effects. Country fixed effects slightly reduce predicted future climate related damage to agriculture. With a mild climate scenario, African farmers gain income from climate change; with a more severe scenario, they lose income. Some locations are more affected than others. The analysis of agro-ecological zones implies that the effects of climate change will vary across Africa. For example, currently productive areas such as dry/moist savannah are more vulnerable to climate change while currently less productive agricultural zones such as humid forest or sub-humid zones become more productive in the future. The agro-ecological zone classification can help explain the variation of impacts across the landscape., 1. Introduction Recent publications of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provide strong evidence that accumulating greenhouse gases are leading to a warming world (IPCC 2007). If these greenhouse [...]

The second session of the Conference of Parties (COP-2) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) convened July 8-19, 1996, in Geneva, Switzerland. On July 18, 1996, the Ministers and other heads of delegations present at COP-2 crafted and released a Ministerial Declaration, also called The Geneva Declaration. It was based on a U.S. policy statement delivered July 17th at COP-2 which: 1) recognized and endorsed the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC) as currently the most comprehensive and authoritative assessment of the science of climate change, 2) called for parties to set ''legally binding, medium-term targets'' for limitations and significant overall reductions of their emissions of greenhouse gases, and 3) rejected commitments for developed country parties regarding ''common or harmonized'' policies and measures in favor of flexibility in applying policies and measures to achieve emissions limitations and reductions. The Chairman of COP-2 called for FCCC parties to ''take note'' of the Ministerial Declaration, and to agree as a body to consider a ''future decision [containing these elements] which would be legally binding on all parties under the FCCC.'' Some in the U.S. Congress have voiced concerns about the principles of common but differentiated commitments and responsibilities, as well as respective capabilities, under FCCC for developed versus developing countries. Specifically, questions have been raised about whether continued adherence to these principles in any protocol or other legal instrument negotiated for the post-2000 period could disadvantage the United States economically and competitively in world markets. Among some Members and the committees of relevant jurisdiction in the House and Senate, a need has been expressed to be better informed about what exactly the United States potentially may be agreeing to during the current Analysis and Assessment Phase called for in the Framework Convention's 1995 Berlin Mandate, as well as what the economic impact would be of future decisions the United States might make vis a vis other FCCC parties in future climate protection negotiations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable development is a key theme in policy making in Norway. Although it owes a considerable part of its wealth to the carbon-based economy, Norway gives priority to the objectives [...]

How Can Countries Effectively and Efficiently Mitigate Climate Change? A successful policy framework for mitigating climate change must satisfy several criteria. * To be effective, mitigation policy must raise the [...]

Climate Change and Loss of Arctic Sea Ice (27) Record low extent of Arctic sea ice in 2007 focused scientific and policy attention on its linkage to global climate change, [...]

Negotiators faced the practical tasks of deciding upon the objectives of the climate change framework and devising instruments that achieves those objectives in a fair and efficient way. Both tasks [...]

The broad international legal framework that most shapes international carbon markets and national policies includes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, additions to the Convention under the Kyoto [...]

In early December 2008, Poznan, Poland will host the 14th Conference of the Parties (COP14) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The COP14 will be a [...]

The study develops a new method to measure the impacts of climate change on agriculture called the Agro-Ecological Zone (AEZ) Model. A multinomial logit is estimated to predict the probability of each AEZ in each district. The average percentage of cropland and average crop net revenue are calculated for each AEZ. Then an estimate of the amount of cropland in Africa and where it is located is provided. Using current conditions, the model calculates baseline values of cropland and crop net revenue, and estimates the future impact of climate change using two scenarios--harsh and mild. Total cropland does not change much across the two climate scenarios. However, the predicted change in African crop revenue ranges from a loss of 14 percent in the mild climate scenario to 30 percent in the harsher climate scenario. The analysis reveals that the greatest harm from climate change is that it will shift farms from high to low productive AEZs. The approach not only identifies the aggregate impacts, but also indicates where the impacts occur across Africa. The central region of Africa is hurt the most, especially in the harsher climate scenario. The Agro-Ecological Zone Model is a promising new method for valuing the long-term impacts of climate change on agriculture., 1. Introduction The growing evidence from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) that climate will change as greenhouse gases accumulate (IPCC 2007) has added urgency to the need to [...]

Developing countries are most exposed to the impact of climate change and within these countries, the poor face the brunt of the burden. Climate change is not a discrete problem [...]

Southern African institutions involved in disaster management face two major new threats: the HIV/ AIDS pandemic (eroding organizational capacity and increasing vulnerability of the population), and climate change (higher risk of extreme events and disasters). Analyzing the combined effects of these two threats on six disaster-related institutions in Malawi, the authors find evidence of a growing gap between demand for their services and capacity to satisfy that demand. HIV/AIDS leads to staff attrition, high vacancy rates, absenteeism, increased workload and other negative effects enhanced by human resources policies and financial limitations. Many necessary tasks cannot be carried out adequately with constraints such as the 42 percent vacancy rate in the Department of Poverty and Disaster Management Affairs, or the reduction of rainfall stations operated by the Meteorological Service from over 800 in 1988 to just 135 in 2006. The authors highlight implications of declining organizational capacity for climate change adaptation, and formulate recommendations., 1. Introduction Institutions dealing with disaster preparedness and response in Southern Africa are facing two enormous challenges: Climate change (IPCC 2007), and HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS 2006). A changing climate is expected [...]

Climate change is one of the key challenges of this century. Specifically, balancing climate change mitigation and increased energy needs in developing countries poses a serious dilemma that can only [...]

Agrawala, S. and S. Fankhauser, Eds. (2008). Economic Aspects of Adaptation to Climate Change: Costs, Benefits and Policy Instruments, OECD, May 2008, Paris:OECD. Berkes, F., T.P. Hughes, R.S. Steneck, and [...]

The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report (IPCC 2007) and other recent assessments (Schellnhuber 2006) conclude that the planet will face dangerous climate change consisting of irreversible and drastic [...]

We used the estimated response functions to explore how climate change scenarios might affect cropland in all of Africa. The Ricardian model estimates how climate affects net revenue per hectare. [...]

The greatest damages from climate change are predicted to be in the agricultural sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture is predicted to be especially vulnerable in this region because it already [...]