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An exploratory study was implemented with bilingual deaf children using a quasi-experimental pre- and posttest design with a 10-week American Sign Language (ASL) and English bilingual Shared Book Reading intervention. Standardized and research-made instruments were used to evaluate ASL and English skills. Intervention effects showed improvements in Receptive ASL skills, Book Reading, and the ability to draw and describe drawings in both languages. Growth in visual phonology was evident in the drawings, and no relationship between auditory phonology and English word identification was found. The results provide implications for early literacy instruction with suggestions for future research.

A feasibility study was conducted to test a storybook intervention to increase early reading skills of 25 young signing deaf children of ages 4-9 in grades K through third grade. The children had wide ranges of hearing losses, non-verbal IQs, and signing skills. All were at risk for developing early reading skills, reading below the first grade level. Using a pre-experimental pre/post test design, standardized tests and early reading tasks, the children changes in letter, word and story knowledge were documented over a full school year. The intervention included 20 weekly story reading sessions with children receive modelling by Deaf story signers, with children using their signing and fingerspelling to practice storybook reading, story reciting, vocabulary learning, fingerspelling and writing skills with easy-to-read picture word/phrase storybooks after modelling from Deaf caregivers and teachers. Future research directions for intervention studies were outlined based on outcomes.

The national policy in deaf education in Mainland China primarily focuses on oral/aural instruction and hearing rehabilitation. The curriculum in primary grades is specifically structured on speech and hearing skills for language development. But there is little evidence that documents what early literacy instruction looks like or how teachers conduct the teaching of reading and writing in classrooms with Chinese deaf children. By analyzing videotapes from the first and second grade classrooms, we describe how reading and writing are taught to deaf children in China. The key findings are that the primary grade literacy instruction (1) shares features of Gradual Release of Responsibility model with a focus on speech and hearing skills; (2) uses multimodal strategies and pedagogical tools such as lip-reading, Pinyin phonetic symbols, Pinyin Finger Spelling, Chinese Sign Language (CSL), and Signed Chinese (SC). Moreover, the curriculum reflects low expectations for deaf students as it lacks the academic content provided to their hearing peers. We conclude with implications for literacy instruction in deaf education, and suggest a future research agenda.

Case studies of adult d/Deaf or Hard of Hearing Multilingual Learners (DMLs) are few, especially studies of DMLs who learn more than one sign language and read logographic and alphabetic scripts. To reduce this paucity, two descriptive case studies are presented. Written questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, and self-appraisals of language-use rubrics were used to explore (a) the language and literacy histories of two adult Asian DMLs who had learned multiple languages: Chinese (spoken/written), English (written), Chinese Sign Language, and American Sign Language; and (b) how each language was used in different cultural communities with diverse conversational partners. Home literacy environment, family support, visual access to languages, peer and sibling support, role models, encouragement, perseverance, and Deaf identity all played vital roles in the participants' academic success. The findings provide insights into the acquisition of multiple languages and bi-literacy through social communication and academic content.

In Part I, we underscore the issues surrounding young deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) learners of literacy in Taiwan who use sign to support their learning of Chinese literacy. We also described the linguistic features of Chinese writing and the visual codes used by DHH children. In Part II, we describe the reading and writing practices used with Taiwanese DHH children. Teachers reported they taught Chinese literacy bridging meaning to print using pictures, speech, sign, visual and visual/gestural codes. Theoretical and practical implications of our descriptive study were given.

We describe the literacy issues facing young deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) learners in Taiwan who are learning both a logographic and an alphabetic script. We describe the contextual factors that surround their reading and writing processes such as island demographics, reading achievement levels, and background language learning variables including deaf culture. We then describe and provide graphic illustrations and examples of the linguistic features of the written languages that DHH children are learning (Chinese and English) as well as the sign codes (Signed Chinese, Zhuyin finger alphabet, character signs, palm writing, and air writing) and the Zhuyin Fuhao written visual symbols. We suggest that contextual, cultural and linguistic factors need to be considered in the understanding of how DHH children learn to read and write as well as how they use their sign language and sign codes to build Chinese and English literacy skills.

In this, the first article in the "American Annals of the Deaf" special issue on English reading development for individuals who are d/Deaf and hard of hearing, the coeditors aim to promote interdisciplinary dialogue among researchers regarding literacy research with d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) students by setting the tone for an open and inclusive forum. Researchers from various disciplines are invited to discuss the similarities and differences between students who are d/Dhh and their typically developing hearing peers in terms of aspects such as reading process, reading development, and reading assessment. Challenges related to the acquisition of language and literacy by d/Dhh students are described. The article highlights the purpose of the special issue, which is to explore what works where, when, why, and for whom.

Deafblind readers are heterogeneous in reading skill acquisition. This qualitative study uses in-depth interviews and protocol analyses and queries the three deafblind adult participants in describing their metacomprehension, metacognitive and metalinguistic strategies used when reading different types of text. Using retrospective analysis, the three adults describe and reflect on how they learned language and how they learned to read as children. The participants also describe the technology that assists them in reading print. Data suggest that deafblind adults use a variety of auditory, visual and tactile-kinesthetic strategies (i.e. braille, large print, and raised print) in decoding English. Some also use ASL, Signed English and tactile ASL and tactile Signed English. (Contains 1 note.)

The authors present a perspective on emerging bilingual deaf students who are exposed to, learning, and developing two languages--American Sign Language (ASL) and English (spoken English, manually coded English, and English reading and writing). The authors suggest that though deaf children may lack proficiency or fluency in either language during early language-learning development, they still engage in codeswitching activities, in which they go back and forth between signing and English to communicate. The authors then provide a second meaning of codeswitching--as a purpose-driven instructional technique in which the teacher strategically changes from ASL to English print for purposes of vocabulary and reading comprehension. The results of four studies are examined that suggest that certain codeswitching strategies support English vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. These instructional strategies are couched in a five-pronged approach to furthering the development of bilingual education for deaf students. (Contains 8 figures.)

A survey of 3,227 professionals in 313 deaf education programs found that 22.0% of teachers and 14.5% of administrators were deaf--a less than 10% increase in deaf professionals since 1993. Additionally, 21.7% of teachers and 6.1% of administrators were professionals of color. Of these minority teachers, only 2.5% were deaf persons of color. Only 3 deaf administrators of color were identified. The study describes how "apartheid" or "intellectual oppression" may result from unchanged hiring practices in K-12 programs for the deaf and in postsecondary institutions. Using a bottle metaphor, the researchers describe how deaf persons of color are often stuck in "a bottleneck on the highway to opportunity." Relevant data underscore that the field of deaf education must diversify its professional force in order to utilize the intellectual, linguistic, and multicultural proficiencies of hearing teachers of color, deaf teachers, and deaf teachers of color. (Contains 3 tables and 7 figures.)

The study investigated the efficacy and viability of American Sign Language (ASL)/English bilingual education for public schools serving deaf and hard of hearing children. Prior research related to ASL/English bilingual education is reviewed. Quantitative data related to the reading comprehension achievement of 25 deaf and hard of hearing students that were collected for the study are analyzed. The subjects' school program is described in depth. Overall performance of the sample is discussed. A description of high and low gainers is included. A statistically significant correlation between years of ASL usage and reading achievement is identified. Implications for the implementation of ASL/English bilingual methodology are reviewed, and suggestions for future research are offered. (Contains 8 tables and 3 figures.)

The deaf education profession faces a critical juncture. First, the 2006 leadership crisis that swept deaf education's flagship institution--Gallaudet University--will propel professionals to think deeply about promoting diversity, equity, and access in deaf education teacher and leadership preparation programs. Second, personnel shortages require attention: Teacher and leadership voids in university and K-12 programs loom if training efforts are not increased. Teaching and leadership needs center on three challenges: (a) understanding the "changing demographic composition" of the student, teacher, and leadership populations; (b) "developing an evolving curriculum" founded on "research-based practices"; (c) continuing to enlarge the knowledge base through "applied research in the social sciences." Two case studies examine teacher training and leadership programs at universities that address these challenges. The importance of workplace deaf-hearing bicultural teams is examined. Implications for the preparation of teacher and leadership personnel in deaf education are discussed. (Contains 4 tables and 1 note.)

Ten graduates and 3 ABD (all but dissertation) students in Lamar University's doctoral program in deaf studies/deaf education were surveyed about their perceptions of the benefits of earning a doctorate of education (Ed.D.) in their field. The program comprised course work on current content information on deaf education, an educational research component, a cognate area, and electives. As part of the program, researchers and scholars in areas related to deaf education were invited to campus to consult with doctoral students. Graduates found jobs at universities, community colleges, and departments of special education. Graduates ranked program components on the basis of perceived value; they rank-ordered the courses on the basis of their value to them in their current work. Graduates also commented on how the program enhanced their professional growth. (Contains 4 tables.)

Discusses how multimedia stories on the World Wide Web are especially useful for children with deafness because video dictionaries of sign language can be built right into the stories. A federally funded project that developed multimedia stories for Mexican-American children with deafness is described. (CR)

Details the backgrounds of seven children with deafness and their families and describes their experiences in a bilingual/bicultural prekindergarten, kindergarten, and first grade from 1993 to 1996. After completion of first grade, six of the children tested at grade level on cognition and academic achievement tests. (CR)

Describes a model home literacy program at the Indiana School for the Deaf. Reviews six case studies of young deaf children in order to explore and describe sign language behaviors which help deaf children grasp reading skills. Claims that sign language and finger spelling can be closely related to early reading and writing at home. (MOK)

Seven deaf elementary school students read fables in printed English that had previously been summarized in American Sign Language (ASL) and read other fables without the intervention. The ASL summary technique increased the quantity and quality of students'"retelling scores"; it also improved readers' comprehension of the moral lessons of the fables. (Author/JDD)

A three-year program for deaf-education undergraduate and graduate students in southeast Kentucky incorporates: Appalachian history, culture, and language; deafness and learning strategies; deaf culture and American Sign Language; and mainstreaming competencies. Trainee self-reports on progress through the program are presented. (KS)

A survey of 6,043 professionals in 349 deaf education programs showed that 10.4% are from nonwhite or minority ethnic/cultural backgrounds. Of these, 11.7% are deaf. Only eight minority deaf administrators were identified. More than half of the minority professionals worked in public schools. Geographic distribution and gender are also analyzed. (Author/JDD)

The full-school-year immersion of six deaf kindergarten students in literacy-rich activities focusing on daily reading and writing in authentic communication tasks resulted in increased levels of written language production. (12 references) (Author/CB)

Fifteen students read expository texts and filled in deleted words and phrases. The five deaf high school youths reported using similar strategies as hearing elementary school youths and hearing reading-disabled high school youths, but deaf readers more often relied on rereading and background knowledge, whereas hearing readers more often used context clues. (Author/JDD)

A prereading model based on a 9-month longitudinal study of 45 deaf preschool children from state residential schools is presented. The model contends that reading can be initiated by giving deaf children opportunities to match their internalized manual language to printed words, stressing reading-related activities involving parents, teachers, and peers. (Author/CB)

Vignettes illustrate the effectiveness of a project providing computer-assisted instruction to three multiply-handicapped deaf high school students. Individual and group activities resulted in increased language skills, more positive attitudes, greater self-esteem and motivation, and improved peer interactions. Software programs are briefly described. (CB)

The reciprocal teaching procedure, which involves interactive dialogue and teacher modeling, was used to teach prereading skills (finger spelling, book reading, story retelling, and word recognition) to 23 prelingually deaf kindergarten and first-grade students. Pre-post test analyses showed that gains were made in letter, word, and story knowledge. (Author/JDD)

Fourteen strategies a hard-of-hearing mother uses while reading a book with her hard-of-hearing preschool son are observed. These strategies are grouped in four large categories: (1) confirmation of child's understanding; (2) focusing attention on the book and its content; (3) specific language input; (4) concept development. (Author/LMO)

The article describes a four-week summer course in which an eight-year-old prelingually deaf boy helped undergraduate students learn sign language and the students helped him learn English print word/phrase equivalents. (DB)

This article proposes a different way for curriculum developers to visualize the curriculum-building process. The author suggests a method to assist faculty in incorporating the ideas that authorities in the field have set forth. (Author/CT)