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A multi-decade record of ground-based mid-infrared (7-25 $\mu$m) images of Saturn is used to explore seasonal and non-seasonal variability in thermal emission over more than a Saturnian year (1984-2022). Thermal emission measured by 3-m and 8-m-class observatories compares favourably with synthetic images based on both Cassini-derived temperature records and the predictions of radiative climate models. 8-m class facilities are capable of resolving thermal contrasts on the scale of Saturn's belts, zones, polar hexagon, and polar cyclones, superimposed onto large-scale seasonal asymmetries. Seasonal changes in brightness temperatures of $\sim30$ K in the stratosphere and $\sim10$ K in the upper troposphere are observed, as the northern and southern polar stratospheric vortices (NPSV and SPSV) form in spring and dissipate in autumn. The timings of the first appearance of the warm polar vortices is successfully reproduced by radiative climate models, confirming them to be radiative phenomena, albeit entrained within sharp boundaries influenced by dynamics. Axisymmetric thermal bands (4-5 per hemisphere) display temperature gradients that are strongly correlated with Saturn's zonal winds, indicating winds that decay in strength with altitude, and implying meridional circulation cells forming the system of cool zones and warm belts. Saturn's thermal structure is largely repeatable from year to year (via comparison of infrared images in 1989 and 2018), with the exception of low-latitudes. Here we find evidence of inter-annual variations because the equatorial banding at 7.9 $\mu$m is inconsistent with a $\sim15$-year period for Saturn's equatorial stratospheric oscillation, i.e., it is not strictly semi-annual. Finally, observations between 2017-2022 extend the legacy of the Cassini mission, revealing the continued warming of the NPSV during northern summer. [Abr.], Comment: 25 pages, 15 figures, accepted for publication in Icarus

We present an analysis of all currently available ground-based imaging of Neptune in the mid-infrared. Dating between 2003 and 2020, the images reveal changes in Neptune's mid-infrared ($\sim 8-25\mu$m) emission over time in the years surrounding Neptune's 2005 southern summer solstice. Images sensitive to stratospheric ethane ($\sim12\mu$m), methane ($\sim8\mu$m), and CH$_3$D ($\sim9\mu$m) display significant sub-seasonal temporal variation on regional and global scales. Comparison with H$_2$ S(1) hydrogen-quadrupole ($\sim17.035\mu$m) spectra suggests these changes are primarily related to stratospheric temperature changes. The stratosphere appears to have cooled between 2003 and 2009 across multiple filtered wavelengths, followed by a dramatic warming of the south pole between 2018 and 2020. Conversely, upper-tropospheric temperatures -- inferred from $\sim 17-25$-micron imaging -- appear invariant during this period, except for the south pole, which appeared warmest between 2003 and 2006. We discuss the observed variability in the context of seasonal forcing, tropospheric meteorology, and the solar cycle. Collectively, these data provide the strongest evidence to date that processes produce sub-seasonal variation on both global and regional scales in Neptune's stratosphere., Comment: 52 pages, 29 figures, accepted to AAS journals (PSJ)

We obtained the first maps of Jupiter at 1-3 mm wavelength with the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) on 3-5 January 2017, just days after an energetic eruption at 16.5S jovigraphic latitude had been reported by the amateur community, and about 2-3 months after the detection of similarly energetic eruptions in the northern hemisphere, at 22.2-23.0N. Our observations, probing below the ammonia cloud deck, show that the erupting plumes in the SEB bring up ammonia gas from the deep atmosphere. While models of plume eruptions that are triggered at the water condensation level explain data taken at uv-visible and mid-infrared wavelengths, our ALMA observations provide a crucial, hitherto missing, link in the moist convection theory by showing that ammonia gas from the deep atmosphere is indeed brought up in these plumes. Contemporaneous HST data show that the plumes reach altitudes as high as the tropopause. We suggest that the plumes at 22.2-23.0N also rise up well above the ammonia cloud deck, and that descending air may dry the neighboring belts even more than in quiescent times, which would explain our observations in the north., Comment: 28 pages, 12 figures, 4 tables

Rotational modulations are observed on brown dwarfs and directly imaged exoplanets, but the underlying mechanism is not well understood. Here, we analyze Jupiter's rotational light curves at 12 wavelengths from the ultraviolet (UV) to the mid-infrared (mid-IR). Peak-to-peak amplitudes of Jupiter's light curves range from sub percent to 4% at most wavelengths, but the amplitude exceeds 20% at 5 $\rm \mu m$, a wavelength sensing Jupiter's deep troposphere. Jupiter's rotational modulations are primarily caused by discrete patterns in the cloudless belts instead of the cloudy zones. The light-curve amplitude is dominated by the sizes and brightness contrasts of the Great Red Spot (GRS), expansions of the North Equatorial Belt (NEB), patchy clouds in the North Temperate Belt (NTB) and a train of hot spots in the NEB. In reflection, the contrast is controlled by upper tropospheric and stratospheric hazes, clouds, and chromophores in the clouds. In thermal emission, the small rotational variability is caused by the spatial distribution of temperature and opacities of gas and aerosols; the large variation is caused by the $\rm NH_{3}$ cloud holes and thin-thick clouds. The methane-band light curves exhibit opposite-shape behavior compared with the UV and visible wavelengths, caused by wavelength-dependent brightness change of the GRS. Light-curve evolution is induced by periodic events in the belts and longitudinal drifting of the GRS and patchy clouds in the NTB. This study suggests several interesting mechanisms related to distributions of temperature, gas, hazes, and clouds for understanding the observed rotational modulations on brown dwarfs and exoplanets., Comment: 17 pages, 8 figures and 1 table

On December 27, 2004, plasma particle detectors on the GEOTAIL spacecraft detected an extremely strong signal of hard X-ray photons from the giant flare of SGR1806-20, a magnetar candidate. While practically all gamma-ray detectors on any satellites were saturated during the first ~500 ms interval after the onset, one of the particle detectors on GEOTAIL was not saturated and provided unique measurements of the hard X-ray intensity and the profile for the first 600 ms interval with 5.48 ms time resolution. After ~50 ms from the initial rapid onset, the peak photon flux (integrated above ~50 keV) reached the order of 10^7 photons sec^{-1} cm^{-2}. Assuming a blackbody spectrum with kT=175 keV, we estimate the peak energy flux to be 21 erg sec^{-1} cm^{-2} and the fluence (for 0-600 ms) to be 2.4 erg cm^{-2}. The implied energy release comparable to the magnetic energy stored in a magnetar (~10^{47} erg) suggests an extremely efficient energy release mechanism., Comment: 6 pages, 2 color figures, submitted to Nature