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The passive retroreflector arrays placed on the moon by Apollo 11, 14 and 15 astronauts continue to produce valuable Earth-Moon range measurements that enable high-precision tests of gravitational physics, as well as studies of geo- and selenophysics. The optical throughput of these retroreflectors has declined since their deployment, with an additional signal loss at full moon when the reflectors experience direct solar illumination. We show that the loss in return rate can be attributed to the accumulation of a thin layer of lunar dust on the surfaces of the corner cube retroreflectors. First, a careful analysis of the optical link budget for the Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) experiment reveals that the lunar return rate is 15--20 times smaller than predicted, a deficit that can be explained by a reflector dust covering fraction of ${\sim} 50$\%. Second, range measurements taken during a lunar eclipse indicate that the solar illumination of the retroreflectors degrades their throughput by an additional factor of ${\sim}15$. Finally, a numerical simulation of heat transfer in dust-coated reflectors is able to model the resulting thermal lensing effect, in which thermal gradients in the retroreflectors degrade their far-field diffraction pattern. A comparison of this simulation to eclipse measurements finds a dust coverage fraction of ${\sim}50$%. Taken together, the link analysis, eclipse observations and thermal modeling support the claim that the retroreflectors are obscured by lunar dust, with both link budget and simulation independently finding the dust fraction to be $\sim$50%.

The Apache Point Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) has been collecting lunar range measurements for 15 years at millimeter accuracy. The median nightly range uncertainty since 2006 is 1.7 mm. A recently added Absolute Calibration System (ACS), providing an independent assessment of APOLLO system accuracy and the capability to correct lunar range data, revealed a 0.4% systematic error in the calibration of one piece of hardware that has been present for the entire history of APOLLO. Application of ACS-based timing corrections suggests systematic errors are reduced to < 1 mm, such that overall data accuracy and precision are both 1 mm. This paper describes the processing of APOLLO/ACS data that converts photon-by-photon range measurements into the aggregated normal points that are used for physics analyses. Additionally we present methodologies to estimate timing corrections for range data lacking contemporaneous ACS photons, including range data collected prior to installation of the ACS. We also provide access to the full 15-year archive of APOLLO normal points (2006-04-06 to 2020-12-27)., Comment: 23 pages, 9 figures

We present data from the Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) covering the 15-year span from April 2006 through the end of 2020. APOLLO measures the earth-moon separation by recording the round-trip travel time of photons from the Apache Point Observatory to five retro-reflector arrays on the moon. The APOLLO data set, combined with the 50-year archive of measurements from other lunar laser ranging (LLR) stations, can be used to probe fundamental physics such as gravity and Lorentz symmetry, as well as properties of the moon itself. We show that range measurements performed by APOLLO since 2006 have a median nightly accuracy of 1.7 mm, which is significantly better than other LLR stations., Comment: 16 pages, 9 figures

We describe for the first time in the scientific literature the Planetary Ephemeris Program (PEP), an open-source general-purpose astrometric data analysis program. We discuss, in particular, the implementation of pulsar timing analysis, which was recently upgraded in PEP to handle more options. This implementation was done independently of other pulsar programs, with minor exceptions that we discuss. We illustrate the implementation of this capability by comparing the post-fit residuals from the analyses of time-of-arrival observations by both PEP and Tempo2. The comparison shows substantial agreement: 22 ns rms differences for 1,065 pulse time-of-arrival measurements for the millisecond pulsar in a binary system, PSR J1909-3744 (pulse period 2.947108 ms; full-width half-maximum of pulse 43 $\mu$s) for epochs in the interval from December 2002 to February 2011., Comment: 9 pages, 1 figure, submitted to Astronomical Journal (AJ)

The Apache Point Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) has been collecting lunar range measurements for 15 yr at millimeter accuracy. The median nightly range uncertainty since 2006 is 1.7 mm. A recently added Absolute Calibration System (ACS), providing an independent assessment of APOLLO system accuracy and the capability to correct lunar range data, revealed a ∼0.4% (10 ps) systematic error in the calibration of one piece of hardware that has been present for the entire history of APOLLO. The application of ACS-based timing corrections suggests systematic errors are reduced to <1 mm, such that overall data accuracy and precision are both ∼1 mm. This paper describes the processing of APOLLO/ACS data that converts photon-by-photon range measurements into the aggregated normal points that are used for science analyses. Additionally, we present methodologies to estimate timing corrections for range data lacking contemporaneous ACS photons, including range data collected prior to installation of the ACS. We also provide access to the full 15 yr archive of APOLLO normal points (2006 April 6–2020 December 27).

The Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) began millimeter-precision ranging to the Moon in 2006. Until now, a comprehensive validation of APOLLO system range accuracy has not been possible because of centimeter-scale deficiencies in computational models of the Earth-Moon range, and because APOLLO lacked an internal timing calibration system. Here, we report on the development of a system that enables in-situ calibration of the timing response of the APOLLO apparatus, simultaneous with lunar range measurements. The system was installed in August 2016. Preliminary results show that the APOLLO system can provide lunar range measurements with millimeter accuracy., Comment: 6 pages, 4 figures. Proceedings of the 20th International Workshop on Laser Ranging, Potsdam, Germany, October 9--14, 2016

Lunar laser ranging provides a number of leading experimental tests of gravitation -- important in our quest to unify General Relativity and the Standard Model of physics. The Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) has for years achieved median range precision at the ~2 mm level. Yet residuals in model-measurement comparisons are an order-of-magnitude larger, raising the question of whether the ranging data are not nearly as accurate as they are precise, or if the models are incomplete or ill-conditioned. This paper describes a new absolute calibration system (ACS) intended both as a tool for exposing and eliminating sources of systematic error, and also as a means to directly calibrate ranging data in-situ. The system consists of a high-repetition-rate (80 MHz) laser emitting short (< 10 ps) pulses that are locked to a cesium clock. In essence, the ACS delivers photons to the APOLLO detector at exquisitely well-defined time intervals as a "truth" input against which APOLLO's timing performance may be judged and corrected. Preliminary analysis indicates no inaccuracies in APOLLO data beyond the ~3 mm level, suggesting that historical APOLLO data are of high quality and motivating continued work on model capabilities. The ACS provides the means to deliver APOLLO data both accurate and precise below the 2 mm level., Comment: 21 pages, 10 figures, submitted to Classical and Quantum Gravity

The Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) has produced a large volume of high-quality lunar laser ranging (LLR) data since it began operating in 2006. For most of this period, APOLLO has relied on a GPS-disciplined, high-stability quartz oscillator as its frequency and time standard. The recent addition of a cesium clock as part of a timing calibration system initiated a comparison campaign between the two clocks. This has allowed correction of APOLLO range measurements--called normal points--during the overlap period, but also revealed a mechanism to correct for systematic range offsets due to clock errors in historical APOLLO data. Drift of the GPS clock on ~1000 s timescales contributed typically 2.5 mm of range error to APOLLO measurements, and we find that this may be reduced to ~1.6 mm on average. We present here a characterization of APOLLO clock errors, the method by which we correct historical data, and the resulting statistics., Comment: 12 pages, 7 figures, submitted to Classical and Quantum Gravity

Many corner cube prisms, or retroreflectors, employ total internal reflection (TIR) via uncoated rear surfaces. The different elliptical polarization states emerging from the six unique paths through the corner cube complicate the far-field diffraction pattern by introducing various phase delays between the six paths. In this paper, we present a computational framework to evaluate polarization through TIR corner cubes for arbitrary incidence angles and input polarization states, presenting example output for key normal-incidence conditions. We also describe a method to produce far-field diffraction patterns resulting from the polarization analysis, presenting representative images---broken into orthogonal polarizations, and characterizing key cases. Laboratory confirmation is also presented for both polarization states and far-field diffraction patterns., Comment: 22 pages, 11 figures

Uncoated corner cube retroreflectors (CCRs) operating via total internal reflection (TIR) are less susceptible to internal heating than their metal-coated analogs, lacking an absorber on the rear surface. Even so, environments that induce differential heating within the CCR will result in thermal lensing of the incident wavefront, introducing aberrations that will generally reduce the central irradiance of the polarization-sensitive far-field diffraction pattern (FFDP). In this paper, we characterize the sensitivity of TIR CCRs to axial and radial thermal gradients. We present simulated FFDPs for key input polarizations and incidence angles and provide a generalized analytic model that approximates the behavior of the central irradiance as temperature differences are introduced., Comment: 22 pages, 9 figures

As lighting efficiency improves, it is useful to understand the theoretical limits to luminous efficacy for light that we perceive as white. Independent of the efficiency with which photons are generated, there exists a spectrally-imposed limit to the luminous efficacy of any source of photons. We find that, depending on the acceptable bandpass and---to a lesser extent---the color temperature of the light, the ideal white light source achieves a spectral luminous efficacy of 250--370 lm/W. This is consistent with previous calculations, but here we explore the maximum luminous efficacy as a function of photopic sensitivity threshold, color temperature, and color rendering index; deriving peak performance as a function of all three parameters. We also present example experimental spectra from a variety of light sources, quantifying the intrinsic efficacy of their spectral distributions., Comment: 8 pages; 9 figures

Lunar laser ranging has provided many of the best tests of gravitation since the first Apollo astronauts landed on the Moon. The march to higher precision continues to this day, now entering the millimeter regime, and promising continued improvement in scientific results. This review introduces key aspects of the technique, details the motivations, observables, and results for a variety of science objectives, summarizes the current state of the art, highlights new developments in the field, describes the modeling challenges, and looks to the future of the enterprise., Comment: 45 page review article; 20 figures

Laser ranging measurements during the total lunar eclipse on 2010 December 21 verify previously suspected thermal lensing in the retroreflectors left on the lunar surface by the Apollo astronauts. Signal levels during the eclipse far exceeded those historically seen at full moon, and varied over an order of magnitude as the eclipse progressed. These variations can be understood via a straightforward thermal scenario involving solar absorption by a ~50% covering of dust that has accumulated on the front surfaces of the reflectors. The same mechanism can explain the long-term degradation of signal from the reflectors as well as the acute signal deficit observed near full moon., Comment: 23 pages, 11 figures, accepted for publication in Icarus

In 1970, the Soviet Lunokhod 1 rover delivered a French-built laser reflector to the Moon. Although a few range measurements were made within three months of its landing, these measurements---and any that may have followed---are unpublished and unavailable. The Lunokhod 1 reflector was, therefore, effectively lost until March of 2010 when images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) provided a positive identification of the rover and determined its coordinates with uncertainties of about 100 m. This allowed the Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) to quickly acquire a laser signal. The reflector appears to be in excellent condition, delivering a signal roughly four times stronger than its twin reflector on the Lunokhod 2 rover. The Lunokhod 1 reflector is especially valuable for science because it is closer to the Moon's limb than any of the other reflectors and, unlike the Lunokhod 2 reflector, we find that it is usable during the lunar day. We report the selenographic position of the reflector to few-centimeter accuracy, comment on the health of the reflector, and illustrate the value of this reflector for achieving science goals., Comment: 11 pages, 1 figure (color), submitted to Icarus; revision addresses reviewer comments

Phobos Laser Ranging (PLR) is a concept for a space mission designed to advance tests of relativistic gravity in the solar system. PLR's primary objective is to measure the curvature of space around the Sun, represented by the Eddington parameter $\gamma$, with an accuracy of two parts in $10^7$, thereby improving today's best result by two orders of magnitude. Other mission goals include measurements of the time-rate-of-change of the gravitational constant, $G$ and of the gravitational inverse square law at 1.5 AU distances--with up to two orders-of-magnitude improvement for each. The science parameters will be estimated using laser ranging measurements of the distance between an Earth station and an active laser transponder on Phobos capable of reaching mm-level range resolution. A transponder on Phobos sending 0.25 mJ, 10 ps pulses at 1 kHz, and receiving asynchronous 1 kHz pulses from earth via a 12 cm aperture will permit links that even at maximum range will exceed a photon per second. A total measurement precision of 50 ps demands a few hundred photons to average to 1 mm (3.3 ps) range precision. Existing satellite laser ranging (SLR) facilities--with appropriate augmentation--may be able to participate in PLR. Since Phobos' orbital period is about 8 hours, each observatory is guaranteed visibility of the Phobos instrument every Earth day. Given the current technology readiness level, PLR could be started in 2011 for launch in 2016 for 3 years of science operations. We discuss the PLR's science objectives, instrument, and mission design. We also present the details of science simulations performed to support the mission's primary objectives., Comment: 25 pages, 10 figures, 9 tables

Forty years ago, Apollo astronauts placed the first of several retroreflector arrays on the lunar surface. Their continued usefulness for laser-ranging might suggest that the lunar environment does not damage optical devices. However, new laser ranging data reveal that the efficiency of the three Apollo reflector arrays is now diminished by a factor of ten at all lunar phases and by an additional factor of ten when the lunar phase is near full moon. These deficits did not exist in the earliest years of lunar ranging, indicating that the lunar environment damages optical equipment on the timescale of decades. Dust or abrasion on the front faces of the corner-cube prisms may be responsible, reducing their reflectivity and degrading their thermal performance when exposed to face-on sunlight at full moon. These mechanisms can be tested using laboratory simulations and must be understood before designing equipment destined for the moon., Comment: 9 pages; 4 figures; accepted for publication in Icarus

When scientific experiments require transmission of powerful laser or radio beams through the atmosphere the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires that precautions be taken to avoid inadvertent illumination of aircraft. Here we describe a highly reliable system for detecting aircraft entering the vicinity of a laser beam by making use of the Air Traffic Control (ATC) transponders required on most aircraft. This system uses two antennas, both aligned with the laser beam. One antenna has a broad beam and the other has a narrow beam. The ratio of the transponder power received in the narrow beam to that received in the broad beam gives a measure of the angular distance of the aircraft from the axis that is independent of the range or the transmitter power. This ratio is easily measured and can be used to shutter the laser when the aircraft is too close to the beam. Prototype systems operating on astronomical telescopes have produced good results., Comment: 16 pages; 8 figures (3 in color); submitted to PASP

The recent discovery of "dark energy" has challenged Einstein's general theory of relativity as a complete model for our macroscopic universe. From a theoretical view, the challenge is even stronger: general relativity clearly does not extend to the very small, where quantum mechanics holds sway. Fundamental physics models thus require some major revisions. We must explore deeper to both constrain and inspire this needed new physics. In the realm of the solar-system, we can effectively probe for small deviations from the predictions of general relativity: Technology now offers a wide range of opportunities to pursue experiments with accuracies orders of magnitude better than yet achieved. We describe both the relevant theoretical backgrounds and the opportunities for far more accurate solar system experiments., Comment: 8 pages, LaTeX, Astro2010 Science White Paper

A next-generation lunar laser ranging apparatus using the 3.5 m telescope at the Apache Point Observatory in southern New Mexico has begun science operation. APOLLO (the Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation) has achieved one-millimeter range precision to the moon which should lead to approximately one-order-of-magnitude improvements in the precision of several tests of fundamental properties of gravity. We briefly motivate the scientific goals, and then give a detailed discussion of the APOLLO instrumentation., Comment: 37 pages; 10 figures; 1 table: accepted for publication in PASP

Lunar laser ranging analysis, as regularly performed in the solar system barycentric frame, requires the presence of the gravitomagnetic term in the equation of motion at the strength predicted by general relativity. The same term is responsible for the Lense Thirring effect. Any attempt to modify the strength of the gravitomagnetic interaction would have to do so in a way that does not destroy the fit to lunar ranging data and other observations., Comment: 1 page; accepted for publication in Physcal Review Letters; refers to gr-qc/0702028

Gravitomagnetism--a motional coupling of matter analogous to the Lorentz force in electromagnetism--has observable consequences for any scenario involving differing mass currents. Examples include gyroscopes located near a rotating massive body, and the interaction of two orbiting bodies. In the former case, the resulting precession of the gyroscope is often called ``frame dragging,'' and is the principal measurement sought by the Gravity Probe-B experiment. The latter case is realized in the earth-moon system, and the effect has in fact been confirmed via lunar laser ranging (LLR) to approximately 0.1% accuracy--better than the anticipated accuracy of the Gravity-Probe-B result. This paper shows the connnection between these seemingly disparate phenomena by employing the same gravitomagnetic term in the equation of motion to obtain both gyroscopic precession and modification of the lunar orbit. Since lunar ranging currently provides a part in a thousand fit to the gravitomagnetic contributions to the lunar orbit, this feature of post-Newtonian gravity is not adjustable to fit any anomalous result beyond the 0.1% level from Gravity Probe-B without disturbing the existing fit of theory to the 36 years of LLR data., Comment: 4 pages; accepted for publication in Physical Review Letters

Current and future optical technologies will aid exploration of the Moon and Mars while advancing fundamental physics research in the solar system. Technologies and possible improvements in the laser-enabled tests of various physical phenomena are considered along with a space architecture that could be the cornerstone for robotic and human exploration of the solar system. In particular, accurate ranging to the Moon and Mars would not only lead to construction of a new space communication infrastructure enabling an improved navigational accuracy, but will also provide a significant improvement in several tests of gravitational theory: the equivalence principle, geodetic precession, PPN parameters $\beta$ and $\gamma$, and possible variation of the gravitational constant $G$. Other tests would become possible with an optical architecture that would allow proceeding from meter to centimeter to millimeter range accuracies on interplanetary distances. This paper discusses the current state and the future improvements in the tests of relativistic gravity with Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR). We also consider precision gravitational tests with the future laser ranging to Mars and discuss optical design of the proposed Laser Astrometric Test of Relativity (LATOR) mission. We emphasize that already existing capabilities can offer significant improvements not only in the tests of fundamental physics, but may also establish the infrastructure for space exploration in the near future. Looking to future exploration, what characteristics are desired for the next generation of ranging devices, what is the optimal architecture that would benefit both space exploration and fundamental physics, and what fundamental questions can be investigated? We try to answer these questions., Comment: 37 pages, 9 figures, 1 table. Invited talk given at ``The 2004 NASA/JPL Workshop on Physics for Planetary Exploration.'' April 20-22, 2004, Solvang, CA

This paper addresses the motivation, technology and recent results in the tests of the general theory of relativity (GR) in the solar system. We specifically discuss Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR), the only technique available to test the Strong Equivalence Principle (SEP) and presently the most accurate method to test for the constancy of the gravitational constant, G. The new Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) will enable tests of the Weak and Strong Equivalence Principles with a sensitivity approaching 10e-14, translating to a test of the SEP violation parameter, \eta, to a precision of ~3x10e-5. In addition, the (v/c)^2 general relativistic effects would be tested to better than 0.1%, and measurements of the relative change in the gravitational constant, \dot{G}/G, would be ~0.1% the inverse age of the universe. We also discuss the Laser Astrometric Test Of Relativity (LATOR) mission that will be able to improve the value of the PPN parameter \gamma to accuracy of 1 part in 10e8 and will measure effects of the next post-Newtonian order (1/c^4) of light deflection resulting from gravity's intrinsic non-linearity, as well as measure a variety of other relativistic effects. LATOR will lead to very robust advances in the tests of fundamental physics: this mission could discover a violation or extension of GR, or reveal the presence of an additional long range interaction in the physical law. There are no analogs to the LATOR experiment; it is unique and is a natural culmination of solar system gravity experiments., Comment: 20 pages, 3 figures, invited talk presented at 302.WE-Heraeus-Seminar: "Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants", 16-18 June 2003. The Physikzentrum, Bad Honnef, Germany

Accurate analysis of precision ranges to the Moon has provided several tests of gravitational theory including the Equivalence Principle, geodetic precession, parameterized post-Newtonian (PPN) parameters $\gamma$ and $\beta$, and the constancy of the gravitational constant {\it G}. Since the beginning of the experiment in 1969, the uncertainties of these tests have decreased considerably as data accuracies have improved and data time span has lengthened. We are exploring the modeling improvements necessary to proceed from cm to mm range accuracies enabled by the new Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) currently under development in New Mexico. This facility will be able to make a significant contribution to the solar system tests of fundamental and gravitational physics. In particular, the Weak and Strong Equivalence Principle tests would have a sensitivity approaching 10$^{-14}$, yielding sensitivity for the SEP violation parameter $\eta$ of $\sim 3\times 10^{-5}$, $v^2/c^2$ general relativistic effects would be tested to better than 0.1%, and measurements of the relative change in the gravitational constant, $\dot{G}/G$, would be $\sim0.1$% the inverse age of the universe. Having this expected accuracy in mind, we discusses the current techniques, methods and existing physical models used to process the LLR data. We also identify the challenges for modeling and data analysis that the LLR community faces today in order to take full advantage of the new APOLLO ranging station., Comment: 15 pages, 3 figures, talk presented at 2003 NASA/JPL Workshop on Fundamental Physics in Space, April 14-16, 2003, Oxnard, CA

The Palomar Integral Field Spectrograph was used to probe a variety of environments in nine nearby galaxies that span a range of morphological types, luminosities, metallicities, and infrared-to-blue ratios. For the first time, near-infrared spectroscopy was obtained for nuclear or bright HII regions in star-forming galaxies over two spatial dimensions (5.7"x10.0") in the [FeII] (1.257um), [FeII] (1.644um), Paschen beta (1.282um), H2 (2.122um), and Brackett gamma (2.166um) transition lines. These data yield constraints on various characteristics of the star-forming episodes in these regions, including their strength, maturity, spatial variability, and extinction. The HII regions stand out from the nuclei. Unlike observations of nuclear regions, HII region near-infrared observations do not show a spatial coincidence of the line and continuum emission; the continuum and line maps of HII regions usually show distinct and sometimes spatially-separated morphologies. Gauging from Paschen beta and Brackett gamma equivalent widths and luminosities, the HII regions have younger episodes of star formation than the nuclei and more intense radiation fields. Near-infrared line ratio diagnostics suggest that HII regions have "purer" starbursting properties. The correlation between ionizing photon density and mid-infrared color is consistent with the star formation activity level being higher for HII regions than for nuclei. And though the interpretation is complicated, on a purely empirical basis the HII regions show lower Fe1+ abundances than nuclei by an order of magnitude., Comment: 37 pages including 13 figures; accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal

We present near-infrared imaging and spectroscopic observations of two FR II high-redshift radio galaxies (HzRGs), 4C 40.36 (z=2.3) and 4C 39.37 (z=3.2), obtained with the Hubble, Keck, and Hale Telescopes. High resolution images were taken with filters both in and out of strong emission lines, and together with the spectroscopic data, the properties of the line and continuum emissions were carefully analyzed. Our analysis of 4C 40.36 and 4C 39.37 shows that strong emission lines (e.g., [O III] 5007 A and H alpha+[N II]) contribute to the broad-band fluxes much more significantly than previously estimated (80% vs. 20-40%), and that when the continuum sources are imaged through line-free filters, they show an extremely compact morphology with a high surface brightness. If we use the R^1/4-law parametrization, their effective radii (r(e)) are only 2-3 kpc while their restframe B-band surface brightnesses at r(e) are I(B) ~ 18 mag/arcsec^2. Compared with z ~ 1 3CR radio galaxies, the former is x3-5 smaller, while the latter is 1-1.5 mag brighter than what is predicted from the I(B)-r(e) correlation. Although exponential profiles produce equally good fits for 4C 40.36 and 4C 39.37, this clearly indicates that with respect to the z~1 3CR radio galaxies, the light distribution of these two HzRGs is much more centrally concentrated. Spectroscopically, 4C 40.36 shows a flat (fnu=const) continuum while 4C 39.37 shows a spectrum as red as that of a local giant elliptical galaxy. Although this difference may be explained in terms of a varying degree of star formation, the similarities of their surface brightness profiles and the submillimeter detection of 4C 39.37 might suggest that the intrinsic spectra is equally blue (young stars or an AGN), and that the difference is the amount of reddening., Comment: 30 pages, 6 tables, 10 figures; Accepted for publication in Astronomical Journal

Imaging spectroscopy using the new Palomar Integral Field Spectrograph is presented for the Pa-alpha line in four ultraluminous infrared galaxies. In most cases, we are able to establish the geometry of the merger, and thus estimate the time in the merger process at which we are viewing the system. The resulting range in estimated ages, some of which are very young encounters (~5x10^7 yr), is not predicted by merger models, which produce high rates of star formation either 1-2x10^8 years after the first encounter or very late (~10^9 yr) in the merger process. Even in the very young mergers, the ultraluminous activity appears to be centrally concentrated on the nucleus of one of the progenitor galaxies---namely the galaxy with a prograde orbital geometry. Very high star formation rates (2-5 M_sun/yr) are also observed in structures believed to be newly formed tidal tails. The presence of a significant population of very young ultraluminous mergers, together with the majority of ultraluminous infrared galaxies existing in the final stages of merger activity, indicates that the ultraluminous galaxy phase is at least bimodal in time. An evolutionary scenario is proposed for ultraluminous infrared galaxies, wherein the far-infrared luminosity may undergo multiple ultraluminous bursts during the course of the encounter. A substantial fraction of the merger lifetime may be spent in a phase identified with the less powerful luminous infrared galaxy class., Comment: 27 pages, 21 figures, 5 in color, uses AASTeX 5.02 & emulateapj5.sty; To appear in the Astrophysical Journal

We present near-infrared spectroscopy for a complete sample of 33 ultraluminous infrared galaxies at a resolution of R\approx 1000. Most of the wavelength range from 1.80-2.20 microns in the rest frame is covered, including the Pa-alpha and Br-gamma hydrogen recombination lines, and the molecular hydrogen vibration-rotation 1-0 S(1) and S(3) lines. Other species, such as He I, [Fe II], and [Si VI] appear in the spectra as well, in addition to a number of weaker molecular hydrogen lines. Nuclear extractions for each of the individual galaxies are presented here, along with spectra of secondary nuclei, where available. The Pa-alpha emission is seen to be highly concentrated on the nuclei, typically with very little emision extending beyond a radius of 1 kpc. Signatures of active nuclei are rare in the present sample, occurring in only two of the 33 galaxies. It is found that visual extinctions to the nuclei via the Pa-alpha/Br-gamma line ratio in excess of 10 magnitudes are relatively common among ULIRGs, and that visual extinctions greater than 25 mag are necessary to conceal a QSO emitting half the total bolometric luminosity. The vibration-rotation lines of molecular hydrogen appear to be predominantly thermal in origin, with effective temperatures generally around 2200 K. The relative nuclear velocities between double nucleus ULIRGs are investigated, through which it is inferred that the maximum deprojected velocity difference is about 200 km/s. This figure is lower than the velocities predicted by physical models of strong interactions/mergers of large, gas-rich galaxies., Comment: 52 pages (19 with just figures), 9 figures, accepted for publication in the Astronomical Journal; Table 3 not formatted properly on astro-ph: get source and print Murphy.tab3.ps

Near-infrared spectroscopy using the new Palomar Integral Field Spectrograph indicates the presence of an AGN (active galactic nucleus) in the ultraluminous infrared galaxy IRAS 08311-2459. The high-velocity wings of the Paschen-alpha hydrogen recombination line are seen to be spatially unresolved, and with no positional offset between red and blue high velocity emission. The [Si VI] coronal line, with a 167 eV excitation potential, is also spatially unresolved with a velocity width comparable to that of the broad component of the Pa-alpha emission. The low velocity component of the Pa-alpha emission is seen to be rotating, and is extended over about 2 kpc. Molecular hydrogen is also extended, and elongated along the maximum velocity gradient, sharing the same rotation profile as the narrow Pa-alpha emission. The simple picture in agreement with the observations is that of an AGN surrounded by a rotating disk of star formation. These observations lend strength to the usage of [Si VI] as a diagnostic of AGN activity in ultraluminous infrared galaxies, and also highlight the utility of integral field spectroscopy in elucidating subtle morphological differences in line emitting regions., Comment: 18 pages, 7 figures (fig. 7 color), AASTeX v5.0, accepted for publ. in AJ

We present Keck high-resolution near-IR (2.2 microns; FWHM~0.15") and mid-IR (12.5 microns; FWHM~0.4") images of APM08279+5255, a z=3.91 IR-luminous BALQSO with a prodigious apparent bolometric luminosity of 5x10^{15} Lsun, the largest known in the universe. The K-band image shows that this system consists of three components, all of which are likely to be the gravitationally lensed images of the same background object, and the 12.5 micron image shows a morphology consistent with such an image configuration. Our lens model suggests that the magnification factor is ~100 from the restframe UV to mid-IR, where most of the luminosity is released. The intrinsic bolometric luminosity and IR luminosity of APM08279+5255 are estimated to be 5x10^{13} Lsun and 1x10^{13} Lsun, respectively. This indicates that APM 08279+5255 is intriniscally luminous, but it is not the most luminous object known. As for its dust contents, little can be determined with the currently available data due to the uncertainties associated with the dust emissivity and the possible effects of differential magnification. We also suggest that the lensing galaxy is likely to be a massive galaxy at z~3., Comment: 32 pages, 4 tables, 11 figures; Accepted for publication in ApJ

Using NICMOS on HST, we have imaged the emission-line nebulae and the line-free continuum in 4C 40.36, a ultra-steep spectrum FR II radio galaxy at z=2.269. The line-free continuum was found to be extremely compact and symmetric while the emission-line nebulae seen in H-alpha+[N II] show very clumpy structures spreading almost linearly over 16 kpc. However, this linear structure is clearly misaligned from the radio axis. The SED of the line-free continuum is very flat, suggesting that if the continuum emission is produced by a single source, it is likely to be a young bursting stellar population or scattered AGN light. However, because of the lack of a line-free optical image with a comparable spatial resolution, we cannot exclude the possibility that the observed SED is a composite of a young blue population and an old red population., Comment: 4 pages, 2 figures; to appear in the proceedings of "The Hy-Redshift Universe: Galaxy Formation and Evolution at High Redshift", eds. A.J.Bunker and W. J. M. van Breugel

Near infrared spectra with resolution R ~ 1100 in the rest wavelength range 1.8-2.2 microns have been obtained for a complete sample of 33 ultraluminous infrared galaxies. Of the 33 objects observed, 2 show evidence of a central AGN through either a broad Paschen-alpha line or emission in the 1.963 micron fine structure of [Si VI]. In the median spectrum of the remaining 31 objects, the lines present are recombination lines of Hydrogen, neutral Helium, vibration-rotation lines of H_2, and [Fe II]. There is no indication of AGN activity in the median spectrum, either through broad atomic recombination lines or high ionization lines. No trends in luminosity are apparent when subsets of the 31 non-AGN ULIRGs are binned by luminosity and median combined. When secondary nuclei exist in ULIRGs, they typically have spectra very much like those seen in the primary nuclei., Comment: 3 figures

We present near-infrared medium-resolution ($R \sim 875$) spectra of the microquasar GRS 1915+105 on 1997 August 13-15 UTC from the Hale 200-inch telescope. The spectra showed broad emission lines of He I (2.058 $\mu$m) and H I (2.166 $\mu$m - Br$\gamma$), consistent with previous work. On August 14 UTC, we took spectra with $\sim 6$-minute time resolution during infrared flaring events similar to those reported in Eikenberry et al. (1998a), which appear to reveal plasma ejection from the system. During the flares, the emission line fluxes varied in approximately linear proportionality to the IR continuum flux, implying that the lines are radiatively pumped by the flares. We also detected a weak He II (2.189 $\mu$m) emission line on August 14 UTC. The nature of the line variability and the presence of the He II feature indicate that the emission lines in GRS 1915+105 arise in an accretion disk around the compact object, rather than in the circumstellar disk of a proposed Oe/Be companion. The radiative line pumping also implies that the flare emission originates from ejecta which have moved out of the accretion disk plane., Comment: 13 pages plus 4 figures, to appear in ApJ Letters

We have imaged the z=3.594 radio galaxy 4C +19.71 in the light of the redshifted [OIII] 5007 angstrom emission line, using a narrow-band filter centered at 2.3 microns with the Near Infrared Camera on the Keck Telescope. The [OIII] nebula of 4C +19.71 has a size of 74 x 9 kpc, and a luminosity of 3 x 10^37 W. The rest frame equivalent width of the 5007 line, averaged over the entire nebula, is 560 angstroms. The length of the major axis of the [OIII] emission is nearly identical to the separation of the radio lobes seen at 1465 MHz (Rottgering, et al. 1994), and the position angle of the nebula is the same as that of the two radio lobes. In addition, 4C +19.71 follows the optical emission line vs. radio power correlation seen in other powerful radio galaxies. The [OIII] and Lyman alpha emission line luminosities suggest that the ionized gas mass lies in the range of 2 x 10^8 - 10^9 solar masses. The O/H ratio in the nebula is at least a few tenths solar, and may be as high as a factor of three above solar, indicating a previous phase of star formation in 4C +19.71. Thirty five percent of the total K-band flux is contributed by the 5007 angstrom emission line, and the continuum of 4C +19.71 has a K=19.6 mag. This places 4C +19.71 along the K-z relation found for other radio galaxies and radio loud quasars. If the continuum is dominated by starlight, the host galaxy has a rest frame visual luminosity of about 40L*. There are no candidate emission-line objects at the redshift of 4C +19.71 having [OIII] rest frame equivalent widths of more than about 2% that of the radio galaxy itself within a volume of 212 cubic Mpc., Comment: plain LaTex with 3 postscript figures. ApJ accepted