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More than 40 years after astronauts first walked on the moon, the U.S. space program is in search of direction. With the end of the space shuttle program last year, the United States must rely on Russian Soyuz rockets to send Americans into space. Private contractors are building spacecraft to ferry astronauts to the International Space Station and beyond, but those won't be ready for years. Meanwhile, budget cutters have pared NASA spending, and President Obama has angered some space enthusiasts by proposing to shift funds from two international Mars missions to a new telescope slated to replace the aging Hubble observatory. Mars remains a tantalizing destination, and a sophisticated rover is scheduled to land there in August to search for signs of life. But a human landing may be decades away. Obama has rejected returning to the moon as a stepping stone to Mars, preferring to send astronauts to an asteroid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hackers made headlines this year when the international protest group Anonymous shut down government and corporate websites, and U.S. and European police moved in. But likely more significant than the antics of so-called "hacktivists" is rising interest by corporations, government security officials and Internet companies in hiring "good" hackers, who can counter attacks by "bad" hackers — cybercriminals. Thefts of money and information via hacked computers are on the rise worldwide, with hundreds of billions in losses annually. The challenge lies in overhauling legal and economic structures to encourage innovative, positive hacks and strengthen defenses against destructive ones, experts say. The Obama administration is proposing a sweeping cybersecurity plan that would require utilities, banks and other economic linchpins to strengthen their systems against computer sabotage. Opponents of the plan argue, however, that new cyberthreats arise too quickly for top-down government regulation to stop them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ever since scientists began to decipher the human genome in the 1990s, hopes have run high that unraveling the genetic code would rapidly revolutionize health care. But while gene research has changed scientists' understanding of many diseases, practical applications remain few. Genetic tests for single-gene diseases such as cystic fibrosis are available, and doctors can more precisely pinpoint the kind of cancer a patient has by analyzing genes. Gene tests can also predict how patients will respond to some drugs. However, no actual gene therapy has been approved for human use, and researchers now know that diseases such as heart disease, Alzheimer's and adult-onset diabetes usually result from a complex interaction among numerous genes and a person's environment. These findings cast doubt on whether current genetic tests for such prevalent diseases are accurate and whether gene science makes it any easier to find treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

NASA's human spaceflight program is stuck in low orbit, held back by budget constraints, political bickering, competing visions and daunting technical challenges. A White House-commissioned panel has warned that the program is on an "unsustainable trajectory" because of funding limitations, and plans to build a new generation of rockets, return to the Moon and eventually go to Mars are under intense scrutiny. Meanwhile, the impending termination of the Space Shuttle could leave a seven-year gap during which the United States could have to rely on Russia to ferry astronauts to space. The future of NASA's human spaceflight program — including whether to build a lunar settlement — rests heavily on whether the Obama administration presses for more space funding. Meanwhile, private companies are working to build rockets of their own. Entrepreneurs hope to transport not only cargo into space but astronauts too. At the same time, private operators are gearing up for an emerging business taking wealthy space tourists into orbit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The U.S. patent system is designed to encourage technological innovation by granting inventors an exclusive right to profit from their discoveries. In recent years, however, many critics have complained that the system is actually impeding innovation. Critics say a hugely overburdened Patent and Trademark Office approves many dubious patents, some of which are used by so-called patent "trolls" to force companies using the patented devices into unjustified financial settlements. Meanwhile, a special federal appeals court created to handle patent cases is accused of misapplying the law and rewarding sometimes-abusive litigation. The Supreme Court is considering a case to tighten the standards for issuing patents, while Congress has been considering other proposed reforms. But the bills stalled because of a stalemate between high-tech industries supporting the measures and the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, which say the current system is working well to promote technological progress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

President George W. Bush used his veto power for the first time on July 19, stopping a bill that would have increased federal funding for research on embryonic stem cells (ESCs). The cells might provide cures for diseases ranging from Alzheimer's to diabetes. ESCs are thought to have more disease-treating potential than similar cells found in adults, but they are controversial because harvesting them destroys a human embryo. The federal government supports research on several ESC cultures derived prior to 2001 from embryos created during in vitro fertilization (IVF) but not used. But the government won't pay to expand the research to other cell lines, which many scientists urge. Bush and other conservatives say morality forbids destroying additional embryos, regardless of the cells' treatment-producing potential. But ESC-research supporters argue the cells' life-saving potential outweighs qualms over destruction of IVF embryos, most of which eventually will be discarded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Harvard President Lawrence Summers ignited a firestorm recently when he suggested more men than women are scientists because of differences between males and females in "intrinsic aptitude." Many scientists -- both men and women -- expressed outrage at Summers' remarks and blamed any lag in math among girls mainly on discrimination and socialization. They point out that girls have closed the gap in average scores on most standardized math tests in elementary and high school. Today women constitute almost half of college math majors and more than half of biology majors. But Summers' supporters say he courageously raised a legitimate question for scientific inquiry. Indeed, in recent years some researchers have been pursuing a scientific explanation for the discrepancies in math and science aptitude and achievement among boys and girls and have found differences, including biological ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cloning became a hot issue in this year's presidential race after scientists in South Korea announced that they had created human embryos by cloning, and former first lady Nancy Reagan urged President Bush to reconsider his policies on so-called therapeutic cloning and embryonic stem-cell research. Some scientists think embryonic stem-cell research could someday produce cures for Parkinson's disease, diabetes and other maladies that afflict millions of people, including Alzheimer's disease, which killed President Ronald Reagan. Others say the procedure offers more hype than hope. Still others, including President Bush, say the research is grossly unethical because it destroys human embryos. They also fear that therapeutic cloning could lead to human cloning and even the creation of human clones as organ sources. Presidential candidate Sen. John Kerry opposes human cloning but has vowed to quadruple federal funding for embryonic stem-cell research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the year cyberpolitics came of age. Building his organization and fundraising efforts online, Howard Dean sped to an early lead in the race for the Democratic presidential nomination. Despite Dean's ultimate failure, other candidates emulated his online tactics, raising a record amount of campaign cash from small donors in the process. MoveOn.org — an Internet-based advocacy group started at home in 1998 by two California activists — became one of the most prominent players in the electoral and public-policy debate, cracking the $30-million mark in fundraising and claiming 3 million members. The Defense Department began, and then abandoned, an effort to enable military personnel overseas to vote over the Internet, while Michigan Democrats added online voting to their presidential caucuses. Exploiting other information technology, political organizations mined computer databases as never before, and election officials touched off heated controversies by switching to electronic voting machines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Political bickering over scientific research is intensifying. The Bush administration has attacked environmental laws like the Endangered Species Act and warnings about global warming, claiming they are not based on sound science. But a distinguished group of scientists contends the administration distorts scientific information in order to support policies favored by the religious right and business interests. Questions also have been raised about the influence of corporate money on the integrity of government and academic science. Recently, it was revealed that many scientists at the prestigious National Institutes of Health (NIH) were also working as paid consultants to drug companies whose fortunes could be affected by decisions the scientists made. And questions increasingly are being asked about the close ties developing between university researchers and corporations, which have become a growing source of funding for academic research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of children diagnosed with the baffling brain disorder has skyrocketed, with some states seeing sixfold increases in recent years. Many parents blame vaccines for the explosion in autism, which causes bizarre repetitive behavior and an inability to establish emotional ties. Responding to parents' lawsuits against vaccine makers, Congress is attempting to craft legislation that protects drug companies while compensating families. But some experts say better diagnosis could explain autism's apparent rise. Researchers are still teasing out the role of genetics and the environment in their search for autism's cause. Meanwhile, school districts across the country face the daunting prospect of providing federally mandated special instruction -- at a yearly cost of up to $60,000 per pupil -- to growing numbers of children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The explosion that destroyed the space shuttle Columbia in February, killing all seven crewmembers, has temporarily halted shuttle flights. President Bush says manned space flight will go on. And in coming years NASA not only plans to continue flying the remaining shuttles but also to build a new orbital space plane to ferry astronauts to the International Space Station. The wisdom of building a vehicle that only carries four to six crewmembers and no cargo, however, has drawn criticism. Moreover, many critics say NASA focuses on unexciting and unnecessary orbital missions when it should be planning cutting-edge expeditions to Mars and beyond. Meanwhile, the Columbia tragedy has renewed criticism that the space agency is not focused enough on safety and that its decision-making processes are flawed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thousands of non-native species have become established in the United States, often causing devastating environmental and economic problems. Although many imported plants and animals provide the nation with food and other products, foreign organisms from pepperweed and cheatgrass to zebra mussels and Asian tiger mosquitoes clog waterways, fuel wildfires, devastate rangelands and even threaten human health. The annual cost has been estimated at up to $138 billion. Controlling the invaders poses such a challenge that scientists believe the most effective solution is to stop the organisms at the nation's borders. But some experts say the government doesn't provide enough resources for adequate inspections. Next year, Congress is set to consider legislation that could tighten restrictions on shippers and others who may inadvertently transport non-native species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances in biotechnology have brought the prospect of genetically altering human beings much closer to reality. But ethicists argue that altering an embryo's genetic blueprint to make a baby smarter or healthier — or prettier — would destroy what it means to be human. There is also concern that genetically endowing children with selected traits will create a social divide between those who can and cannot afford the procedure. But proponents argue that genetically enhancing people will not devalue their humanity, just make them potentially smarter and healthier. They also dispute the notion of a "genetic divide," noting that the rich already have a variety of means — from private schools to top-flight health care — to give their children advantages. Recent hearings on Capitol Hill continued the debate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetically engineered crops have made their way into most of the food consumed in the United States, and transgenic animals may be next on the dinner plate. The scientific advances could usher in an era of more nutritious food, reduce pesticide use and perhaps even end world hunger, advocates say. But opponents view genetic engineering as one of the most reckless ventures of modern science, threatening to unleash new plant and animal species that could damage both human health and the environment. To guard against such potential calamities, the skeptics want labeling for genetically altered foods and more stringent government regulation and testing. Meanwhile, consumer protests, especially in Europe, are putting the future of genetically engineered food in doubt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diabetes is widely misunderstood as a mild, manageable disease. In fact, the metabolic disorder is a deadly and costly disease that is rapidly increasing in the United States and around the world. At least 16 million Americans have the disease, caused by a lack or shortage of insulin. The incidence of diabetes in the U.S. has increased by 41 percent over the past decade. Experts say diabetes is partly genetic and at least partly behavioral. Obesity and lack of exercise are key risk factors for the most common form. Public health officials are spreading the word about the epidemic, while doctors and scientists are trying to develop better ways of treating it, and someday a way of preventing it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the lethal condition appeared in British cattle in the mid-1980s, mad cow disease has jumped the species barrier and killed more than 90 people in Europe. But some experts say thousands of humans could be afflicted. Meanwhile, hundreds of thousands of cattle -- sick or suspected of infection -- already have been destroyed in Europe. The precise cause of mad cow disease, or bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), is a mystery, but scientists do know it is spread by feeding cattle with meat-and-bone meal from diseased animals. The European Union has imposed strict rules to prevent mad cow's further spread, including banning feed made from animals. While the United States has yet to detect a single case of mad cow disease, critics warn that government surveillance efforts and cattle-feed regulations are inadequate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scientific evidence continues to mount suggesting that fossil fuel use is causing apotentially disastrous warming of Earth's atmosphere. But governments are still far from agreement on the best way to solve the problem. Three years after more than 150 countries signed the Kyoto Protocol agreeing to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and other "greenhouse gases" implicated in global warming, no industrialized country has ratified the treaty. Prospects for prompt action dimmed in November when talks in the Netherlands aimed at implementing the protocol broke down amid charges that the United States -- the world's biggest greenhouse-gas polluter -- was seeking to exploit loopholes in the Kyoto treaty in order to avoid changing its energy-consumption habits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immunization rates are at all-time highs, and once-dreaded childhood diseases like polio and diphtheria are at or near record lows. But growing numbers of parents and a small group of scientists question the safety of some vaccines, claiming they can cause severe adverse reactions. They also contend that vaccines shouldn't be mandatory for illnesses like chickenpox and hepatitis B -- which are mild or rare in children -- and that tests on the vaccines have been inadequate. In addition, some scientists say that producing genetically engineered vaccines without knowing the long-term side effects is foolhardy. But drugmakers and health officials say there is no proof of a causal relationship between vaccinations and severe adverse reactions and that maintaining public health demands widespread mandatory immunization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The book-publishing industry is all abuzz over electronic books. E-book advocates say they will revolutionize reading, much as Gutenberg's invention of movable type did more than 500 years ago. Electronic books, they say, provide useful computerized features along with portability and durability. Many bibliophiles, however, sneer at the digitized products. They rhapsodize about the feel of ink-on-paper books as well as useful features of print products that they say e-books lack. Consumer acceptance is uncertain. The $200 to $600 price tag for handheld e-book readers is one barrier. In addition, only a small percentage of books are now available in electronic format. But e-book entrepreneurs are working hard to expand the market and say that prices will come down as that happens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the past two decades, the nation's unprece-dented economic boom has been driven in large measure by the computer industry. But many experts believe that further high-tech innovation will stall if engineers continue to rely on silicon-based microprocessors, which have limited computational capacity. Other futuristic technologies -- including molecular processors and quantum computers -- are being developed that promise radically better performance. But some industry experts warn that several non-technological roadblocks are also thwarting the pace of advancement. They say vital government funding for research into new technologies has steadily eroded, that the number of U.S. science graduates has plummeted, resulting in a shortage of talent, and that U.S. immigration policy doesn't admit enough foreign computer experts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sometime this spring, researchers are expected to finish deciphering most of the human genome -- the collection of some 100,000 genes that contain the operating instructions for the human body. The stunning accomplishment is expected to enable doctors to diagnose many diseases from a patient's genetic profile and treat or even prevent diseases by targeting the underlying genetic flaws. But revealing the genome's secrets also poses a host of legal and ethical concerns, including whether genetic information should be patented or kept in the public domain. Critics also worry about potential privacy violations, discrimination by insurers or employers seeking to exclude the genetically "flawed" and the psychological impact of genetic testing for incurable diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asthma, a chronic breathing disorder, is rapidly increasing in the United States and many other industrialized countries. Asthma affects more than 17 million Americans, including more than 5.3 million youngsters, and the incidence rate has nearly doubled since 1982. Experts disagree about the causes of the epidemic-like increase, but many now believe the most important factors are indoor air contaminants that trigger the allergic reaction associated with asthma attacks. Medications can relieve asthma symptoms and control the inflammation of the airways that causes asthma, but asthma advocates say some doctors are not aggressive enough in prescribing treatments. Meanwhile, researchers are looking for more effective treatments and trying to determine the origins of the disease in hope of finding a cure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of embryos and aborted fetuses in scientific research is again under scrutiny, thanks to last year's landmark isolation of primordial human embryonic stem cells. These "master cells" are capable of evolving into virtually every kind of tissue in the body and could be the key to cures for conditions such as Parkinson's disease and diabetes. They also offer a never-before-seen glimpse into the earliest stages of human development. But anti-abortion groups and other critics contend the privately funded work runs counter to a 1995 congressional ban on embryo research and want to bar taxpayer money from subsidizing the research, regardless of the potential benefits. Congress and the National Institutes of Health are trying to devise new guidelines, and sidestep political minefields.education boosts academic achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aseries of recent launch failures has rocked the U.S. space program, casting doubt on the nation's space prowess at a crucial time. Commercial launches are expected to surge early in the 21st century as companies deploy satellites for direct-to-home television, mobile phones, pagers and other communications equipment. The United States, once assured of a significant piece of the market, now faces intense global competition. Delays and technical problems could further erode market share and also delay the launch of military satellites for national security purposes. Congress is debating what to do -- and awaiting the results of a series of inquiries into the accidents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biggest public-health threat in the nation may be as close as your fingertips. Common bacteria increasingly are developing resistance to the most powerful antibiotics, making it more difficult to cure infections and reversing the half-century of progress made since the development of penicillin. In recent years, public-health officials have identified drug-resistant strains of pneumonia, gonorrhea, meningitis, tuberculosis and staph. Superbugs contribute to the nearly 90,000 deaths that occur each year due to hospital-acquired infections and add billions of dollars to the nation's health-care costs. Reasons for their rise include the overuse of antibiotics and, possibly, use of the drugs to promote growth in livestock. Government officials are divided over how to respond - and hampered by the lack of adequate surveillance systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

DNA identification has moved from an experimental technique to an established crime-solving tool for police and prosecutors in the United States, as well as other nations. Now, law enforcement agencies are creating DNA databases of criminal offenders that can be used to link criminals or suspects to unsolved crimes. All 50 states have laws requiring DNA profiling of some offenders, and some law enforcement officials want to compile DNA profiles of arrestees as well. Defense lawyers are also using DNA analysis to challenge old convictions; more than 60 prisoners - some on death row - have been exonerated by DNA testing. But civil liberties and privacy advocates say expanding government DNA databases will lead to misuse of sensitive personal information that can be gleaned from DNA analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since President Richard M. Nixon launched the nation's war on cancer 25 years ago, more than $25 billion has been spent fighting the disease. While scientists' understanding of the biology of cancer has greatly expanded, cancer incidence and mortality rates have continued to climb, prompting some observers to question whether research funds are being spent wisely. Many experts are confident that exciting advances in the laboratory will soon lead to powerful new treatments, but others say it is time to shift more money into preventing the disease in the first place. The debate has particular resonance in the 1990s, as budgets are cut and increasing criticism is directed at the National Cancer Institute, which coordinates U.S. anti-cancer efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This year 565,000 Americans are expected to die of cancer, while 1.2 million will be newly diagnosed with the disease. The National Cancer Institute projects that, within five years, cancer will pass heart disease as the nation's No. 1 killer. Yet usually cautious researchers are optimistic they finally may be able to delay, if not always prevent, the spread of malignant cells. Encouraging lab results stemming from $30 billion of publicly funded research carried out since the early 1970s are yielding new insights into the biological underpinnings of the disease. That isn't enough for critics, who say the war on cancer has produced many treatments that looked promising but fizzled. They support spending more money on cancer prevention instead of cures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world was stunned in February with the announcement that an adult mammal had produced an offspring without an egg being fertilized by a sperm. The"Dolly" story ignited a global media storm, in large part becauseof its chilling implication that human cloning was possible. There was deep disagreement, however, over the ethics of cloning humans. Opponents called for a ban on human cloning research, arguing that cloning offers few benefits to science while requiring unacceptable risks and undermining our very concept of humanness. But many scientists argued that cloning research could open the door to better understanding of how cells work and thus help battle cancer and other diseases. Others said its benefits could range from duplicating embryos for in vitro fertilization to replacing a dying child. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The proposed tightening of federal air quality regulations has sparked bitter debate between businesses and public-health professionals as well as entire regions of the country. At issue are the maximum levels of smog and soot permitted under the 1990 Clean Air Act. Affected industries say the stricter regulations would impose intolerable financial burdens while providing negligible health benefits. Environmentalists and many health professionals say enforcing stricter air standards would save lives at relatively low cost and improve everyone's quality of life. The Environmental Protection Agency must make its final decision on the new standards this summer. Meanwhile, disagreement over the need for new standards is developing into one of the most acrimonious environmental debates in decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing concern that some scientists were faking their experiments led the government in 1989 to create a special office to investigate fraud among recipients of biomedical research grants. Recently, however, several of the office's most sensational guilty verdicts have been reversed, raising questions about the fairness of the government's investigations. Critics within the scientific community charge the office conducted witch hunts, denying due process to accused scientists and unfairly tarring careers. Meanwhile, reformers are urging the government to expand its oversight of research misconduct, arguing that untrustworthy data — even if not the product of outright fraud — can mislead other scientists searching for medical cures. Responding to widespread dissatisfaction, a White House panel is developing new guidelines for dealing with research misconduct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every day, most Americans are exposed to indoor air contaminants that can cause cancer, respiratory illness and other serious health problems. In fact, indoor air is typically two-to-five times more polluted than outdoor air. The most serious of the indoor air contaminants are environmental tobacco smoke (also called ETS or secondhand smoke) and radon, an invisible, odorless, radioactive gas that seeps into houses from underlying soil and rock. No one argues that residential or workplace air can be made totally pollutant free. But pollution experts and industry representatives disagree over whether radon poses a serious health hazard, and whether smoking should be totally banned at work and in public buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing number of schools are rushing to get on the information superhighway. They view the ability to navigate telecommunications byways as vital to survival in the information age. Added impetus comes from school reformers, who say computer networks can link schools to the "real world," bring vast new stores of information into classrooms and teach children to become lifelong learners. Skeptics see the current fascination with technology as an expensive diversion and warn that the inherent conservatism of schools will thwart the reformers' dreams. The outcome may hinge on whether Americans accept the reformers' vision of a complete overhaul of the education system, and whether society matches its zeal for installing computer hardware with a commitment to train teachers to use it effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Millions of Americans are now a click of the "mouse" away from instantly joining a worldwide computer communication network. But the age of the Internet has brought society more than the fruits of faraway knowledge, new business opportunities and round-the-clock entertainment. It has also stirred up thorny legal and ethical questions surrounding crime detection, sexual mores, free speech, copyright protection and socio-economic status. Not surprisingly, radically different ways to meet the challenges of the technological revolution have been proposed. Some argue for dramatic changes in laws and customs to accommodate the digital era. Others say existing structures can be adapted. Still others say the "Wild West" anarchy in which the world computer network grew up will make it impossible to tame. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]