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Comments on the authenticity and editorial procedures in the introduction to the Chinese book version of the Tiananmen Papers that illuminate an understanding of Chinese politics. Discrepancies between the Chinese and the English versions; Definition of authenticity; Faulty editorial policies and processes.

Up to now, the Chinese government has only made very general comments on the application of international humanitarian law to cyberspace. There are indeed Chinese academic papers concerning this issue, but the discussion of the principle of distinction is limited both in length and in academic depth. Compared with the West, research by Chinese scholars on this topic is still in a relatively preliminary stage. At present, there is no specific deconstruction or clarification of the application of the principle of distinction in cyberspace in Chinese academia. As the first paper written by Chinese scholars specifically devoted to this question, this piece provides a different perspective by injecting the positions of Chinese officials and the views of Chinese scholars. The authors aim to clarify whether the existing rules are still completely applicable in the cyber context, and if needed, to find out what kind of improvements and clarifications can be made. Weighing in on these debates, we argue that despite the potential technical challenges and uncertainties, the principle of distinction should be applied to cyberspace. It should also be carefully re-examined and clarified from the standpoint of preventing over-militarization and maximizing the protection of the interests of civilians. For human targets, the elements of combatant status identified in customary international law and relevant treaties are not well suited to the digital battlefield. Nevertheless, cyber combatants are still obligated to distinguish themselves from civilians. In applying the principle of distinction, we argue that it makes more sense to focus on substantive elements over formal elements such as carrying arms openly or having a fixed distinctive sign recognizable at a distance. In interpreting "direct participation in hostilities", the threshold of harm requires an objective likelihood instead of mere subjective intention; the belligerent nexus should be confirmed, and the causal link should be proximate. Applying the "cyber kill chain" model by analogy helps us to grasp the whole process of direct participation in hostilities during cyber warfare. For non-human targets, all military objectives must cumulatively fulfil both the "effective contribution" and "definite military advantage" criteria, which are equally indispensable. The same requirements apply to dual-use objects. Furthermore, certain data should fall within the ambit of civilian objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: This paper aims to analyze the inequalities in general practitioner (GP) distribution in China. Background: GPs-based primary health care (PHC) has been implemented from 2011 in China, aiming to improve the accessibility and quality of basic medical and healthcare services. GPs in China, as the gatekeeper of people's health, mainly undertake integrated health services at the grass-roots level. Methods: The number of GPs and inequality in GPs distribution from 2012 to 2018 was analyzed by the Lorenz Curve/Gini coefficient and Theil L index. Data were extracted from China Health Statistical Yearbook 2013–2019. Findings: The demographic Gini coefficient of GPs changed from 2012 (0.234) to 2018 (0.167), showing high equality in China. In contrast, the Thiel L index from 2012 (0.372) to 2018 (0.345) showed less equality. The decomposition of Thiel L index implicated the inequalities within the divisions. The number of GPs in China shows a fast growth trend since the general practice system established, and the GPs distribution becomes more demographically equitable. However, the shortage of GPs and inequality in their distribution remains severe. More incentive and supportive policies need to be made to enhance the quantity, quality, and structure of GPs in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The recognition of the importance of mental health as a health-target to be pursued at a global level has received additional theoretical legitimacy through its inclusion in the United Nations (UN) 2030 Agenda for Sustainable development. The theoretical axiom – mental health as a development priority – is today expected to drive the focus of research efforts and orient the future policies and funds expenditures, at global and local level. According to these premises, it becomes central to track the international trajectories of mental health research and how the different countries are progressively defining their role in the global mental health effort. In this paper we have focused on China. In light of heavy burden of mental and substance use disorders affecting this country, and considering the impact of this burden at a global level, a basic research was conducted with the main aim of offering a preliminary view on the Chinese scientific activity within the context of global mental health research. This study is not intended to assess the quality of Chinese research, but merely to retrieve and measure a specific output of this research: the articles in mental-health produced by Chinese institutions based in mainland China, published in international journals. Although the publication of articles in internationally indexed journals in not exhaustive of China's scientific activity in global mental health, it is nevertheless informative of the production of new knowledge, it allows an assessment of the impact of this knowledge at the global scientific community level and it could partially reflect the Chinese capacity to benefit from research conducted globally. Objective: In consideration of the very limited number of studies assessing the collective evidence of Chinese research in mental health, we developed our analysis with the purpose of providing a preliminary picture of the Chinese contribution, in terms of scientific publications, in this field of knowledge. Our research performs a bibliometric analysis on the articles in mental-health produced by Chinese institutions based in mainland China and published in English-language SCI-E and SSCI journals from 1990 to 2019, providing a measure of the impact of this research at the global scientific community level. Methods: We performed a search on the Web of Science (WoS) using seven mental and substance use disorders according to their global prevalence, as per estimates of the Global Burden of Disease 2019. A dataset including the overall number of publications for seven diseases was created and exported in InCites. The dataset was analysed on the basis of 11 research areas (WoS categories) to which mental health topic is associated in SCI-E and SSCI journals in WoS. We further extracted publications that originated in mainland China. The citational trends over time are calculated with nonparametric test for trends across ordered groups. An evaluation of the impact of the Chinese scientific production is provided by the number of citations received at the global scientific community level, both as average and percentile. Results: From 1990 to 2020 the overall Chinese scientific production in mental health has been generally increasing, reaching the highest growth in the last decade. A statistically significant increase (p < 0.001) is reported for articles produced by Chinese institutions in mainland China regarding 'depression*', 'bipolar disorders*' and 'schizophrenia*'. Published Chinese research is mostly included in SCI-E journals. There is a substantial overlap regarding the average number of citations for articles in mental-health produced by Chinese institutions and the rest of the world. Despite the increasing trend, the percentage of articles in mental health produced by Chinese institutions in mainland China on the overall scientific production worldwide is below 10%. Conclusion: Notwithstanding a substantial increase in the last decade, the volume of Chinese publications appears to be very limited, thus resulting in a relatively low impact at a global level. These results are affecting the potential contribution of Chinese research in the global mental health effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To assess the regulation of the Chinese healthcare system in assisting a nationwide implementation of general practitioner (GP) services. Background: Along with the perennial problems of unaffordable and inequitable healthcare, a rapidly ageing population and the increasing burden of non-communicable diseases pose challenges to the Chinese healthcare system. Recognising these challenges and to satisfy people's demands for more and better healthcare, China has initiated a plan, named 'Healthy China 2030', based on the findings from a two-year joint study by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Bank Group (WBG) in collaboration with Chinese agencies. The Chinese healthcare plan, officially approved in 2016, is an attempt to use the people-centred, integrated care (PCIC) model recommended by the WHO and WBG to shape the Chinese healthcare system. In accordance with PCIC, China began the implementation of gatekeeping primary care by introducing GP services to local communities. Methods: A comparative analysis was employed to point out the importance of introducing GP services. A systematic assessment was carried out to evaluate the regulatory sector of the Chinese healthcare system, including a critical review of related legal norms and a theoretical exploration of external impediments (eg, cultural attitudes, government capacity and interest groups). Findings: Results demonstrate that the current regulatory sector of the Chinese healthcare system needs to be improved in order to assist the nationwide implementation of GP services and to strengthen its gatekeeping role. Major deficiencies include the problematic relationship between legal norms and health policies, the lack of effective and consistent new legislation, the low rate of social acceptance, and lack of support from agencies. To address those challenges, this paper recommends that preliminary efforts be devoted, in part, to two changes in the legal structure: enacting a specific law, and creating an independent regulatory oversight body. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that the first phase of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945 saw a significant change in the relationship between state and society in China, leading to a greater use of techniques of classification of the citizenry for purposes of welfare provision and mobilization through propaganda, methods until recently more associated with the Communists than with their Nationalist rivals. The paper draws on materials from Sichuan, the key province for wartime resistance, showing that the use of identity cards and welfare provision regulations were part of a process of integrating refugees from occupied China into the wider wartime society, and that propaganda campaigns were deployed to persuade the local indigenous population to support wartime state initiatives. Although Nationalist efforts to mobilize the population in wartime were flawed and partial, they marked a significant change in the conception of Chinese citizenship. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper examines the role that veterans played in the construction of historical memory narratives in mainland China, Taiwan, and Japan. I argue that veterans, who had long established a ‘language community’ with a particular way to speak about the war, found it difficult to communicate with post-war audiences that did not share that experience. The paper analyses six categories of ‘memory writing’ that veterans used to engage with memory debates: post-war diaries, ‘testimonial literature’, articles and literary works, surveys and oral histories, memoirs, and paratext. This study thus proposes that veterans do not avoid discussion of war, but can only be ‘heard’ by members of their language community, or by a post-war society that is prepared to ‘listen’ to their message with little mediation. This is a direct consequence of their experience of the war, and how they crafted their language community at that time. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The wartime period between 1937 and 1945 provided an exceptional opportunity for the Guomindang state to experiment with a wide array of schemes that sought to further its nation-state project in the borderland regions of China. Under the rubric of ‘frontier reconstruction’ (bianjiang jianshe) it devised a series of plans that encompassed both the economic and cultural transformations of these regions. This paper discusses a particular scheme devised by Chinese anthropologist, Li Anzhai (1900–1985), during his stay at the Tibetan Buddhist monastery of Labrang where he sought to transform borderland societies into a modern Chinese citizenry. A key aspect to his strategy was the mobilization of youth where trained cadres and students performed what became known as ‘frontier service’ (bianjiang fuwu) establishing a dialogue with the community's own particular demands by means of building schools, hospitals and agricultural projects. This paper argues that the notion of ‘frontier service’ and the ‘cultural reconstruction’ project propounded by Li not only sought to modernize and unify China around a distinct multicultural identity, it was also an important mobilizing force amongst sectors of wartime youth which arguably introduced young Han Chinese to a region which they had hitherto only imagined in the pre-war period. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper explores the unusually weak voice of Chinese war veterans in post-1949 politics society and culture. Although Chinese movies and television often feature military-related themes, it is rare to find frank and politicized depictions of China's military conflicts. In this respect, China departs sharply from the former Soviet Union—China's Leninist model for most of its formative years—as well as Vietnam, European inter-war fascist regimes and democracies. This paper argues that the relative weakness of authentic military voices in China can be traced to several peculiar features of modern Chinese history. The nature of warfare in China, as well as the absence of a national army, veteran organizations and a consensus over the legitimacy about China's wars, has led many to question the validity of veterans’ claims for a higher political and cultural status. Rather than allow veterans the space to portray war as they experienced it, intellectual elites in various cultural and propaganda offices dominate national war memory, presenting a simplistic and artificial rendering of China's wars. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In today's China, public memory of the War of Resistance against Japan, 1937–1945, is more visible than ever. Museums, movies, television programmes, and commemorations focus heavily on the victimization of the Chinese people at the hands of the Japanese invaders. Japanese atrocities, particularly the Nanjing Massacre, are at the centre of much of this remembering. But what of the wartime period? How did journalists and writers discuss Japanese atrocities? This paper finds that most wartime writing stressed the theme of ‘heroic resistance’ by the Chinese rather than China's victimization at the hands of Japanese. Exceptions to this approach included efforts to publicize Japan's action to Western audiences in the hope of gaining support for China's cause, and a related focus on the bombing of the civilian population by the Japanese. This paper suggests major differences between the current approach to remembering the war and to writing during the war itself. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

By the nineteenth century, with the advance of British colonial activities, British corporate laws had been transplanted to maritime Asia with varying degrees of vigour. In British Hong Kong, these laws often clashed with native customs. Through a reconstruction of the legal disputes found in urban Hong Kong, this paper discusses how British and Chinese business traditions interacted with each other during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Before assessing the historical implications and consequences of these legal decisions, this paper will also explore whether the Chinese institution of tong is compatible with British law in urban Hong Kong. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China's engagement with African countries is growing rapidly, spanning trade, investment and development cooperation. Some observers have suggested that poor operating standards among Chinese investors may contribute to the social ills associated with extractive industries and undermine host countries' sustainable development. Drawing on case study data from the copper mining sector in Zambia, this paper argues that the economic and political context surrounding Chinese investment risks undermining the effectiveness of local environmental, social and fiscal regulation. The analysis first explores particular characteristics of large-scale Chinese investment, including the prevalence of state-led financing and the challenges of effectively monitoring overseas Chinese projects. It proceeds to place these characteristics within the host country regulatory context, which in the case of Zambia features significant capacity constraints, political interventionism and a pervasive lack of transparency. The paper argues that, within a weak regulatory setting, Chinese investment may pose significant challenges for effective business regulation. Yet the resulting state-firm dynamics are by no means exclusive to Chinese investment. Rather, it is host country regulatory characteristics, in combination with certain features of investors' corporate governance, that together herald a new set of challenges for business regulation in developing African countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectiveTo describe the Nutrition Improvement Programme for Rural Compulsory Education Students (NIPRCES) in China and to share the experiences of developing and implementing nationwide school meal programmes with other countries.DesignThe article is based on a literature review of technical documents and reports of NIPRCES and relevant national legislation, technical reports and studies on school nutrition, minutes of meetings and national conferences, and official documents of the National Office of Student Nutrition and the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention.SettingPeople’s Republic of China.SubjectsPublished papers, national policies, legislation and unpublished official documents.ResultsA total of 23 million rural compulsory education students were covered by NIPRCES. In the development and implementation process of NIPRCES, fifteen ministries and national committees were involved and an efficient collaborative mechanism was established. All NIPRCES-covered schools were required to serve meals on a daily basis. By the end of June 2012, the proportions of students choosing ‘school feeding’, ‘food package’ and ‘family feeding’ modes were respectively 64·0 %, 32·0 % and 4·0 %. The central government subsidized school meals annually by more than $US 2·5 billion and invested $US 4·8 billion on school kitchens to support this programme.ConclusionsThe NIPRCES is a significant movement of governmental nutritional intervention in China. Food safety, financial security, decentralization and other potential concerns should be considered and lessons can be learned from other countries. Further relevant research and a nationwide monitoring and evaluation programme are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

ObjectiveDespite public health efforts, folate deficiency is still largely prevalent in poor, rural populations and continues to cause a large burden of disease. The present paper determines and compares consumer preferences for two folate strategies: folic acid supplementation v. folate biofortification, i.e. the enhancement of the folate content in staple crops.DesignExperimental auctions with non-repeated information rounds are applied to rice in order to obtain willingness-to-pay for folate products. Thereby, GM or non-GM folate-biofortified rice (FBR) is auctioned together with rice that is supplemented with free folic acid pills (FAR).SettingShanxi Province (China) as a high-risk region of folate deficiency.SubjectsOne hundred and twenty-six women of childbearing age, divided into a school (n 60) and market sample (n 66).ResultsDespite differences according to the targeted sample, a general preference for folate biofortification is observed, regardless of the applied breeding technology. Premiums vary between 33·9 % (GM FBR), 36·5 % (non-GM FBR) and 19·0 % (FAR). Zero bidding behaviour as well as the product choice question, respectively, support and validate these findings. The targeted sample, the timing of the auction, the intention to consume GM food and the responsibility for rice purchases are considered key determinants of product choice. A novel ex-post negative valuation procedure shows low consistency in zero bidding.ConclusionsWhile the low attractiveness of FAR provides an additional argument for the limited effectiveness of past folic acid supplementation programmes, the positive reactions towards GM FBR further support its potential as a possible complementary micronutrient intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines how an ethnic Miao uprising in West Hunan in 1937 became the site for the interaction of a broad range of competing local, provincial, and national interests. The target of the uprising was a tuntian system formed from confiscated Miao lands in the early nineteenth century to support a military system defending against Miao disturbances. Surviving anachronistically into the twentieth century, the military land rents of this system formed a base for warlord power on Hunan's western frontier. The uprising arose opportunistically in the context of a struggle over the resources of this system between the warlord of West Hunan and a provincial governor whose provincial state-building project sought to end the region's long political autonomy. The uprising consequently drew the attention of Nationalist Party factions who saw it as an opportunity to use the uprising to undermine the provincial governor in the interest of their own centralizing state-building project. Finally, the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War allowed uprising leaders to recast the uprising as a patriotic movement, seeking equality for the Miao of West Hunan by the abolition of the tuntian system and offering the mobilization of uprising forces for service at the front once this goal was achieved. In the end, the uprising functioned as a palimpsest upon which the multiple motivations and desires of its participants, in their broad social, political and personal contexts, were written and overwritten. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Hong Kong's hospital system has long been the territory of Western medicine. However, during the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003, an integrative approach, combining Chinese and Western medicines, was used in some hospitals in Hong Kong, suggesting a revival of Chinese medicine in the hospital system of this former British colony. This paper will explain how this could happen, by situating the event in the over 160 years' long history of Chinese medicine in Hong Kong. Specifically, it will focus on the role of ‘Chinese medicine’ and ‘traditional Chinese medicine’ in Tung Wah Hospital, a local charity established in 1870, which grew subsequently into one of the largest voluntary organizations in Hong Kong. It will also show how the fall and revival of Chinese medicine in this hospital were related to two epidemics: the bubonic plague in 1894, and the SARS outbreak in 2003. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Chinese leaders have repeatedly insisted upon the contemporary relevance of the ‘War of Resistance to Japan’ (1937–1945). However, the content of the official history of the war and the lessons drawn from it have changed dramatically from 1949 through 2010. This paper begins by reviewing theories of collective remembrance and then covers four historical periods: China's ‘benevolent amnesia’ on Japan's wartime atrocities before 1982; China's patriotic education campaign from the mid-1980s; the rise of history activism in China in the late 1990s; and the post-2005 reversal in official rhetoric on Japan and the wartime past. It concludes that, while the party-state retains an impressive capacity to shape the narratives of critical periods of modern Chinese history, Chinese leaders are likely to find themselves increasingly constrained by domestic forces and by external events beyond their control. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

During the later years of the War of Resistance to Japan (1937–1945), United States (US) propaganda activities intensified in both Japanese military-occupied and ‘free’ regions of China. One of the most important organizations behind these activities was the Office of War Information (OWI). This paper examines the OWI, and particularly its Overseas Office, as key institutional actors within a broader US total war effort which touched the lives of civilian populations in East Asia as well as combatants, arguing that: •US propaganda institutions and propagandists played demonstrable roles in representing and shaping the experience of war in China;•these institutions, which included Asians and individuals of Asian descent, simultaneously acted to advance US goals in the wartime ‘Far East’;•while cooperation between US and Chinese governments was sporadic in the area of psychological warfare, conflicts over control often undermined or limited operations;•despite these shortcomings, US propaganda institutions (which included both the OWI and offices within the Department of State) had developed comparatively wide-ranging capabilities by the end of the war, and continued operations into the Civil War of 1945–1949.By 1945 propaganda had become an activity which regularly targeted allied populations as well as enemies. This process was facilitated by the early twentieth-century communications revolution, but was planned and controlled by the new engineers of the post-war order. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The defeat of the Chinese Nationalist Party (Guomindang) in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 is often explained as a consequence of Nationalist fiscal incompetence during the Second Sino-Japanese War, which led to the collapse of the Nationalist state. In this paper, I argue that from 1937 until 1940, GMD fiscal policy managed to preserve a degree of relative stability even though, by early 1939, the Nationalists had already lost control over ports yielding 80 per cent of Customs revenue which, during the Nanjing decade (1928–1937), had accounted for more than 40 per cent of annual central government revenue. The loss of this revenue forced the Nationalists to introduce wartime fiscal instruments, taxation in kind, and transit taxes, both previously condemned as outdated and inequitable by the Nationalists. Further territorial losses led to the introduction of deficit financing, which in turn became a cause of hyperinflation. The introduction of war-time fiscal instruments led to administrative changes in the revenue-collecting agencies of the Nationalist state, and to the demise of the Maritime Customs Service as the pre-eminent revenue-collecting and anti-smuggling organization. The administrative upheavals of the war facilitated the rise of other central government organizations nominally charged with smuggling suppression, which in fact frequently engaged in trade with the Japanese-occupied areas of China. Hence, administrative reforms at a time of fiscal collapse, far from strengthening the war-time state, created one of the preconditions for the disintegration of the Nationalist state, which facilitated the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) victory in 1949. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

China's rapid growth and increased integration with the global economy over the past three decades have significant economic impacts and political implications for Latin America. This paper reviews the debate over whether these impacts have on balance been positive or negative for the region. It argues that those who emphasise the positive economic impacts of China have been over-optimistic and underplay some of the negative impacts associated with Chinese competition in manufacturing and increasing Latin American specialisation in primary products. On the other hand, when focusing on the political dimensions, there has been a tendency to exaggerate both the extent of China's influence in the region and the fears to which this gives rise, particularly among US commentators. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Even after the Russo-Japanese War, Manchuria remained the powder keg of East Asia. In the war’s aftermath, three empires, the Qing, the Russian and the Japanese, stationed their troops in Manchuria, in a struggle for military supremacy there. There has already been a considerable amount of research on these military activities. However, previous works have not discussed them from a triangular relationship. This paper contends that the history of modern East Asia cannot be understood until one examines the shift in the military balance in Manchuria from a triangular comparative point of view. The results of such examination show that, in Manchuria, each empire was unable to establish military domination alone, and therefore needed an alliance partner. During the Xinhai Revolution, the Russia-Japan ‘alliance’ wielded overwhelming military power against China. However, after the Russian Revolution in 1917, Japan renounced cooperation with a weakened Russia and built a new partnership with China to advance the Siberian intervention. The military triangle of Russia, China and Japan was unable to create a comprehensive regional security system in Manchuria because what was established was based on mutual distrust and fear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the trajectories of handicraft cloth production in three major sub-regions of Jiangsu Province in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In contrast to traditional focus on the bankruptcy of rural handicrafts in the face of competition from the modern industry, it argues that the fate of handicrafts depended on the specific characteristics of each sub-regional economy. Thus in Song-Tai, handicraft weaving declined as labour was drawn off into modern industry. In Tong-Hai the availability of machine-spun yarn in the market enabled the development of a commercialised handicraft weaving sector. Finally, in Xu-Huai-Hai machine-spun yarn enabled the inhabitants to substitute their own subsistence handicraft production for cloth purchased from elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A well-preserved highly diverse radiolarian fauna was discovered from the Upper Permian Dalong Formation in Guangxi, South China. A new genus and 19 species are described in this paper. Zhuangodiscus n. gen. belongs to the Family Relindellidae Kozur and Möstler. The 19 species include eight new species (Albaillella bialata, Neoalbaillella camarata, Neoalbaillella cephalota, Zhuangodiscus biacanthus, Zhuangodiscus orthacanthus, Zhuangodiscus pentacanthus, Tetratormentum nandanensis, Octatormentum yaoi) and 11 undetermined species. A new radiolarian assemblage, Neoalbaillella camarata Assemblage is proposed, which is located at the upper part of Neoalbaillella optima Assemblage Zone, corresponds well with the Albaillella yaoi Zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Sino-Tibetan family, reflexivity is either not expressed in the verb, as in Chinese or Tibetan, or expressed by means of a "middle" marker, as in Dulong or Kiranti languages. Among the morphologically rich languages of this family, only Rgyalrong languages have distinct and unambiguous reflexive and reciprocal markers on the verb. This paper shows that the reflexive prefix in Rgyalrong languages has two possible origins. It could come from a fusion of the third person singular marker and the root meaning "self" or, alternatively, come from the free third person pronoun. Both hypotheses are compatible with our understanding of Rgyalrong historical phonology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores in decisions of the Qing Board of Punishments the importance of the identification of the "cause of death" for the allocation of liability in cases of homicide. The Board's preoccupation with the issue of causation is discussed through its use of three formulae which express in different ways the causal link between the elements in the chain of causation culminating in death: yin/you... so zhi ("cause... as a result of which"), zui zuo so you/yin ("offence liable that which causes"), and zhaoxin ("beginning of the trouble"). Some remarks are added on the relationship between the concepts of "causation" and "fault" in the historical development of the traditional Chinese law of homicide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historical studies of Burma-China relations have emphasised warfare, seen from the perspective of Chinese sources. One commonly studied event is the thirteenth-century Mongol invasion of Bagan. Burmese sources describe the flight of King Narathihapate (1257-87) from the Mongols, thus earning the Burmese epithet 'Taruppye'. 'Tarup' now refers to the Chinese, but the identities of the people and region to which the term applies have not been constant. This paper discusses the question of the identity of ' Tarup' in the Burmese chronicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aims of the present paper were to assess the nutritional status of children under 5 years old using the 2006 WHO Child Growth Standards ('the WHO standards') and to compare the results with those obtained using the National Center for Health Statistics/WHO international growth reference ('the NCHS reference'). Design: This was a community-based cross-sectional survey. The WHO standards were used to calculate Z-scores of height-for-age (HAZ), weight-for-age (WAZ), weight-for-height (WHZ) and BMI-for-age (BMIZ). Setting: Fifty counties of thirteen mid-western provinces, China. Subjects: A total 8041 children aged <5 years were measured during a 2-month period from August to October 2006. Results: The prevalence of stunting, underweight and wasting were 30.2%, 10.2% and 2.9%, respectively. The prevalence of overweight and the possible risk of overweight were as high as 4.1% and 16.8%. Further analysis among the children with possible risk of overweight found that the percentage of stunting (HAZ>22) was 57.6%, the percentage with -22≤HAZ≤2 was 41.0% and the percentage with HAZ>2 was only 1.4%. The prevalence of stunting was 21.9% and of underweight was 12.7% by the NCHS reference. Conclusions: Stunting was the most serious problem that was impeding child growth and development. The high rate of 'overweight' was a false impression, the truth being 'stunting overweight', and the way to solve it should be to increase protein and other nutrients in the diet at an early age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very few macroscopic soft-bodied Ediacaran fossils are hosted in carbonates; most of them are preserved as casts and molds in siliciclastic rocks or as carbonaceous compressions in black shales. This taphonomic bias limits our capability to fully understand the diversity and paleoecology of macroscopic Ediacaran life forms. Previous reports have shown that the upper Ediacaran Dengying Formation in South China and Khatyspyt Formation in Siberia contain macroscopic soft-bodied fossils preserved in bituminous limestone; thus they have the potential to expand our knowledge about the Ediacaran biosphere. However, the biogenecity of the Dengying fossils described in Xiao et al. (2005) has been questioned. In this paper, we provide additional material and arguments in support of the biogenecity of these fossils, which are formally described as Yangizirainulus zhangi new genus and species. Yangiziramulus zhangi consists of a branching system with a central axis and tubes on both sides. The tubes appear to be distally open. Yangtziramulus zhangi is interpreted as a flat-lying benthic organism, as indicated by the mutual avoidance relationship among densely clustered individuals. Yangiziraniulus zlzangi finds few morphological analogs among modern organisms, but it is broadly similar to several macroscopic Ediacaran forms. Its morphological and ecological complexity is inconsistent with a microbial interpretation. Yangtziramulus zhangi is typically covered by a thin veneer of fine-grained silts, suggesting that it was probably smothered and killed by an episodic flux of silty sediments (event deposits). Its tube walls are replaced with early diagenetic calcspars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rise of China is seen by some observers as a precursor of inevitable hegemonic competition in East Asia. At the very least, it seems likely that China's influence in East Asia will grow at the expense of the United States. Whether this will eventually amount to a form of hegemonic transition is far less clear. It is, therefore, an opportune moment to consider the relative strengths and weaknesses of China and the US in East Asia. This paper suggests that the nature of hegemonic competition and transition is more uncertain and complex than some of the most influential theoretical understandings of hegemony would have us believe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The uppermost 5-15 m of the Douling Formation in the southern Hunan area, South China, yields a diverse fauna comprised of ammonoids, bivalves, and brachiopods. The brachiopods reported in this paper consist of 51 species in 34 genera and are dominated by the Lopingian (Late Permian) species associated with a few species persisting from the underlying Maokouan (Late Guadalupian). This fauna is of earliest Wuchiapingian in age as precisely constrained by the associated conodont Clarkina postbitteri postbitteri and the Guadalupian-type ammonoid fauna of the Roadoceras-Doulingoceras Zone in the brachiopod horizon. The discovery of the Lopingian species-dominated brachiopod fauna in the earliest Wuchiapingian in southern Hunan suggests a much less pronounced effect of the pre-Lopingian crisis (end-Guadalupian mass extinction) than the end-Changhsingian mass extinction in terms of brachiopods, a contemporaneous Onset of the Lopingian recovery/radiation during the pre-Lopingian crisis period, and taxonomic selectivity of the pre-Lopingian crisis in terms of different fossil groups. New taxa are Echinauris doulingensis n. sp., Pararigbyella quadrilobata n. gen. and n. sp. and P. doulingensis n. gen. and n. sp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes two aspects of China's economic relationship with Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). First, we examine the extent to which China's economic growth is affecting trade and investment flows between China and LAC. Second, we analyze the extent to which the emergence of China as a world exporter affects the ability of LAC countries to compete in world markets bath in terms of exports as well as in the capacity to attract foreign investment. For each of these questions, we provide a critical assessment of a new body of work in this area, as well as offer a series of analyses that build on and confirm some of this previous work. Furthermore, we offer implications for policy and future research. We show that there is an emerging consensus regarding China and LAC. With respect to trade and investment flows, China accounts for a significant amount of the boost in LAC exports and foreign investment in recent years, but is exporting more than it imports. In terms of global competitiveness, LAC is not significantly threatened by Chinese exports in global markets, with the exception of Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upper Neoproterozoic successions in the North China and nearby Chaidam blocks are poorly documented. North China successions typically consist of a diamictite unit overlain by siltstone, sandstone, or slate. Similar successions occur in Chaidam, although a cap carbonate lies atop the diamictite Unit. The diamictites in both blocks have been variously interpreted as Cryogenian, Ediacaran, or Cambrian glacial deposits. In this paper, we describe problematic macrofossils collected from slate of the upper Zhengmuguan Formation in North China and sandstone of the Zhoujieshan Formation in Chaidam; both fossiliferous formations conformably overlie the aforementioned diamictites. Some of these fossils were previously interpreted as animal traces. Our study recognizes four genera and five species—Helanoichnus helanensis Yang in Yang and Zheng, 1985, Palaeopascichnus minimus n. sp., Palaeopascichnus Ineniscafus n. sp., Horodyskia moniliformis? Yochelson and Fedonkin, 2000, and Shaanxilithes cf. ningqiangensis Xing et al., 1984. None of these taxa can be interpreted as animal traces. Instead, they are problematic body fossils of unresolved phylogenetic affinities. The fundamental bodyplan similarity between Horodyskia and Palaeopascichnus, both with serially repeated elements, indicates a possible phylogenetic relationship. Thus, at least some Ediacaran organisms may have a deep root because Horodyskia also occurs in Mesoproterozoic successions. Among the four genera reported here, Palaeopascichnus Palij, 1976 and Shaanxilithes Xing et al., 1984 have been known elsewhere in upper Ediacaran successions, including the Dengying Formation (551–542 Ma) in South China. If these two genera have biostratigraphic significance, the fossiliferous units in North China and Chaidam may be upper Ediacaran as well. Thus, the underlying diamictites in North China and Chaidam cannot be of Cambrian age, although their correlation with Ediacaran and Cryogenian glaciations remains unclear. As no other Neoproterozoic diamictite intervals are known in North China and Chaidam, perhaps only one Neoproterozoic glaciation is recorded in that area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractFollowing on from Part 1 of this article (BSOAS70/2, 305?372), Part 2 continues to examine the use of colour in different diviner groups, but focuses on the groups belonging to the non-kings' school. It also includes the newly discovered inscriptions from the eastern section of Huayuanzhuang in Yinxu. The exercise of colour preference in the non-kings' school is similar to that seen in the kings' school, but reveals an even broader interest. By looking at the context in which each colour was used, we can detect the process of a colour system working in Shang rituals. The final section of the paper provides a cross-cultural comparison of Shang colour symbolism which had a profound influence on the late wuxingtheory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes nine brachiopod species (including two uncertain species) in eight genera of the Orthotetidina from the uppermost Changhsingian (latest Permian) of South China. They are the youngest silicified Permian brachiopods known in the world and the last representatives of the Orthotetida, a major brachiopod group that disappeared during the end-Permian mass extinction. Other than two uncertain species, all taxa are new, including Meekella don gluoensis, Perigeyerella guangxiensis, Ombonia capilla, Derbyia nigpi, Schuchertella fushuiensis, Streptorhynchus ovata, and Tropidelasma elongata. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A delicate and well-preserved latest Permian radiolarian fauna was obtained from muddy siliceous rocks and siliceous mudstones in the Dongpan Section, southwest Guangxi, China. The specimens of family Albaillellidae in the fauna have been selected for taxonomic study in this paper. Two genera and 14 species belonging to this family are recognized and described, including three new species and one new subspecies, namely Neoalbaillella minuta, Albaillella flabellata, Albaillella fida, and Albaillella yaoi longa, respectively. This assemblage is correlated to the Neoalbaillella optima Assemblage Zone. Its biostratigraphic significance and the final extinction of Albaillellidae at the end of Late Permian are observed and discussed herein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which discusses the specific roles of central and local officers qua co-participants in reform decisions, utilizing observations acquired through archival research and interviews on the shifting designs of China's rural tax-for-free reform. It is a national reform to address the intriguing question of excessive state extraction and state to society relations in the country. This paper has identified and analyzed the differentiated roles of these officers.

The article presents a study which investigates why Mao and Maoist ideologists underwent extreme conditions in seeking their political goals and how they would justify the chaos and disasters the Chinese society suffered from 1966 to 1976. The paper aims to approach the issue by a analysis of the intense and enduring Maoist interest in and discussion on cosmology and their relationship with the Cultural Revolution.

A well-preserved radiolarian fauna reported from the Changxing Formation in the Meishan D Section, Changxing, Zhejiang, China, mainly includes abundant Entactinia itsukaichiensis, Grandetortura nipponica, Copicyntra robustodentata, Lepingosphaera stauracanthus, and a few Entactinia meishanensis n. sp., Entactinia? sp., Entactinosphaera cimelia, Triaenosphaera sp., Tetragregnon sp., Paracopicyntra ziyunensis, Copicyntroides sp. cf. C. asteriformis, Copicyntroides sp., and Ishigum trifustis, with the conodont Neogondolella subcarinata Zone. One new species, Entactinia meishanensis, is described in this paper. This radiolarian fauna is characterized by low abundance and low diversity, and apparently occurred in a water depth of 150-200 m. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Provides information on the articles discussed in the periodical "The China Quarterly" from October-December 2003. Foreign relations; China's European Union policy paper; Economic affairs; Military affairs; Party and political affairs.

Comments on the authenticity and editorial procedures to the Chinese book version of the Tiananmen Papers that illuminate an understanding of Chinese politics. Government's inability to attack the book in any effective way; Disagreement with a number of the editorial and translation decisions; Authenticity of the materials on the inspection of physical documents.

Chen and Yao (1993) described diverse echinoderm communities from Ordovician through Upper Carboniferous rocks in western Yunnan, China—the first monographic treatment of Chinese echinoderms in almost 70 years. This paper is the first in a series of studies re-describing echinoderm taxa from these biogeographically important Paleozoic assemblages. Pentremites globosus Chen and Yao, 1993 is designated as the type species of Sinorbitremites, a new genus of orbitremitid blastoids. Pentremites ovatus Chen and Yao, 1993 is placed in synonymy with Sinorbitremites globosus (Chen and Yao, 1993). Cryptoschisma conicum has been reassigned to Breimeriblastus, a hyperoblastid blastoid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a global health crisis that originated in China. As an adjacent city to the origin of COVID-19, Hong Kong has been facing different public health challenges raised by the epidemic. Objectives: This paper examined the prevalence of common physical symptoms, psychological symptoms, somatic symptoms, and health anxiety among the Hong Kong youth population. Methods: HKYES is an on-going territory-wide epidemiological study collecting youth mental health data with randomly stratified sampling. Participants aged 15-24 years were to complete a physical symptom checklist, Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21), Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), Patient Health Questionnaire-15 (PHQ-15), and Short Health Anxiety Inventory (SHAI). Results: A total of 594 participants have completed the survey since April 2020. The three most common physical symptoms were headache (n=106, 17.8%), fever (n=94, 15.8%) and fatigue (n=78, 13.1%). The mean scores of DASS depression, anxiety and stress subscales were 7.98 (SD 8.14), 5.81 (SD 6.32), and 8.83 (SD 7.93) respectively. Among all, 135 (22.8%) participants reported moderate to severe levels of depressive symptoms, 133 (22.4%) reported moderate to severe levels of anxiety symptoms, and 71 (12%) reported moderate to severe levels of stress. There were 40 (6.7%) and 60 (10.1%) participants showing significant levels of insomnia and somatic symptoms, while around one-third of the participants reported a high level of health anxiety. Conclusions: Youth is at risk of severe psychological impact during the coronavirus. Monitoring the mental health trajectory for youth should become routine practice during times of crisis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents an abstract of a conference paper on the public provision of disaster relief in China in the 18th century.