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Political instability has been a mainstay in Libya since the Italian occupation in 1911. In the intervening years, the shifting political landscape has had an undeniable influence on the presence of English in the country. In this paper, I argue that Libya presents an ideal case study for Kachru's Concentric Circles of English, where 'linguistic ammunition' (Kachru, 1986: 121) is used to manipulate and control the masses and spread anti‐Western sentiment in this expanding circle country. To provide a much‐needed socio‐historical context for a country whose English language and linguistic history remains understudied (Hillman et al., 2020), this paper touches on key events in Libya's political history that have influenced the status of English and language use; from the Italian colonization, to Qaddafi's decade‐long ban of English, to the 2011 Revolution, and beyond. This paper is divided into six sections: (1) critical approaches to language policy (Tollefson, 1991) and Foucault's governmentality approach (1991); (2) demographic and geographic description of Libya; (3) historical and political overview; (4) educational language policy and the development of the education system; (5) English language policy in Libya (the ban on use of English in 1986 following the 1969 coup that brought Qaddafi to power and the reintroduction of English in the mid‐1990s); and will conclude with (6) English language in post‐Qaddafi Libya. Understanding these key moments in Libyan political history will provide the context needed to understand how a generation of Libyans found themselves without the linguistic skills necessary to compete in the global economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is interested in the role and function of memories in United Nations Security Council debates about humanitarian intervention. It posits that historical experiences and their lessons serve as interpretative devices for the abstract international norms and principles under discussion. The paper speaks of 'international memories' where the meaning and lessons derived from the past coalesce among a group of states. Empirically, its case study explores how the memories of totalitarianism/fascism and colonialism were employed in United Nations (UN) representatives' verbal pleas to intervene in Libya and Syria after the Arab Spring. It finds that those who supported or opposed humanitarian intervention held different interpretations of these memories and their lessons. In each case, however, memories provided essential normative guidance to states when it came to implementing the abstract international principles, norms, and rights that underlie humanitarian intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past decade a series of events including the outbreak of the Syrian war, drought and tireless insurgencies in sub-Saharan Africa triggered the largest wave of displacement ever seen through and around the Mediterranean. The majority of those bound to Europe through the Mediterranean are smuggled by criminal networks. The proliferation of Trafficking and Smuggling of Human Beings (TSHB) between the Sahel and the Libyan shores feeds into the evolving threats of terrorism, crime and insecurity in the Sahel, West Africa and Europe. This paper explores the involvement of armed groups in TSHB in the Central Sahel and Libya. The author argues that the involvement of armed actors in the TSHB in the Central Sahel and Libya is not uniform and not systematically used for terrorism financing. Criminal networks and armed groups leverage opportunities created by conflict to generate profit and project power. They operate in convergent spaces benefitting from state fragility, and shared social networks. The link between terrorism and migrant smuggling and trafficking, if found, remains localized benefitting individuals rather than organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper aims to study recent approaches to peacemaking, particularly by Turkey and Russia, in a changing world and their implications for UN-led peace processes. The authors analyze the factors that allow parallel processes to UN mediation to emerge and discuss their influence. Design/methodology/approach: The paper presents two in-depth case studies of mediation in Syria and Libya, where the UN, as well as Russia and Turkey, were actively involved in peacemaking. Findings: The authors find that parallel processes to UN mediation emerge if the UN process does not show progress toward a negotiated settlement and other third parties have leverage over the conflict parties. However, whether these parallel processes pose a fundamental challenge to the UN-led process depends on how sustained the third parties' leverage over the conflict parties is. If it lasts, it puts the UN in a difficult position to either participate in the parallel process and contain it but thereby also legitimizing it, or to abstain from participating but thereby risking to lose control over the mediation process. Research limitations/implications: Analyzing different approaches to mediation helps to better understand current dynamics of multiparty mediation, including an increased questioning of the effectiveness of UN mediation, and provides insights on how the UN may adapt to keep its relevance in a changing world. Originality/value: The paper is based on original first-hand data gathered between 2018 and 2022 through more than 50 interviews with UN officials, negotiation team members, political and civil society actors from Syria and Libya, (former) state officials and experts from Russia and Turkey, as well as external observers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Noise generated by air traffic is one of the leading problems in urban areas in the world. That is why the measures for reducing the noise generated by air traffic are today the subject of constant improvement, extensive research, and standardization. Monitoring and predicting air traffic noise levels represent an important factor in quality control and noise management. In order to reduce the noise level in the vicinity of Mitiga International Airport (Tripoli) in Libya, the aim of this paper is to assess the noise emission levels before and after the introduction of certain measures to reduce airborne noise, as well as to predict the noise level at the analyzed area. The method of interpolation in the Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to graphically represent the spatial distribution of noise emissions in the study area, and by applying zonal statistics deviations from the allowable values for each control grid were calculated. The obtained results showed that the application of certain measures has a great impact on reducing noise levels on controlled grids. Finally, the reliability of noise level prediction was successfully assessed using the artificial neural network (ANN) method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the constitutive impact of the 'international' on the sociopolitical transformations in Syria and Libya through the lens of the theory of Uneven and Combined Development (UCD). The conventional and numerous critical analyses of Syrian and Libyan sociopolitical change suffer from a Eurocentric and stagist understanding of development. This paper argues that development problems can be better conceptualized with an interactive framework made possible by the UCD theory. In this context, we focus on how the expansion and consolidation of capitalism through the dynamics of UCD have concretely shaped the process of sociopolitical transformation in Syria and Libya to shed light on how the international and the local have articulated to produce the socioeconomic and political outcomes in these two states. We conclude by arguing that the theory of UCD provides an alternative conceptualization in explaining the specific development trajectories in both countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the phenomenon of state failure in general, and the Libyan state in particular, by studying the legacy left by Gaddafi regime and its impact on the institutions, which are believed to have become more fragile during his rule. The study discusses how the historical legacy of the Gaddafi regime played a role in the failure of the Libyan state after 2011, and assumes that personal authoritarian regimes such as the Gaddafi regime are the most harmful to state institutions. Given the inability of the ruling elite to restrict the behaviors and decisions of the authoritarian leader, which often aim to prevent the existence of any real institutions that might limit his ability to exercise power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the formation of the modern Libyan state and the political, economic, and social transformations that accompanied it, from its independence in 1951 up to the period just before the disintegration of the state and its institutions due to the repercussions of the 2011 uprising. It focuses on the role played by the choices made by the ruling national elites in shaping the modern Libyan state during the two political regimes that governed Libya before the 2011 uprising: the Senussi Kingdom (1951-1969) and the Jamahiriya State (1969-2011). This study aims to test a fundamental hypothesis that the current crisis facing the Libyan state is deeply rooted in the manner in which the modern Libyan state was formed. This process was characterized by the inherent contradiction arising from the imposition of a modern nation-state on Libyan society through colonialism and a long historical trend of weakening the state’s institutional structure at the hands of the ruling political elites within both the monarchy and the Jamahiriya state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aims to promote the sustainable utilization of locally available, environmentally friendly resources, making a substantial contribution to both mitigating global warming and fulfilling future energy needs. Hybrid renewable energy systems have demonstrated superior stability and reliability compared to single-source systems, all while operating at minimal costs. This paper provides an overview of various hybrid renewable energy systems employed for electricity generation. It underscores that in hot regions, despite high solar radiation, solar PV systems experience reduced electrical yield due to elevated solar cell temperatures beyond the recommended range, especially in summer. In such areas, leveraging solar thermal applications and abundant biomass energy from extensive agricultural activities is preferable. What sets this study apart is its innovative approach: replacing conventional hybrid systems, like PV, wind, diesel generators, and batteries, with a Stirling engine powered by dish solar concentrators, which offer high efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The proposed Hybrid Renewable Energy System (HRES), consisting of a parabolic dish solar concentrator and Biomass Digester (PDSC/BG), transforms challenges into opportunities. It provides the community with a sustainable source of electricity, heating, and cooking gas, simultaneously addressing the region's waste management issues. The system is evaluated at Brack City, Libya, and comprises a 36,560 m3 biomass digester that produces 27 Mm3 annually, a 1230 kW Stirling generator, and a 6006 m2 PDSC collector area. The system will add 5,670,534 kWh of energy to the grid yearly, with a peak load capacity of 1230 kWh and a coverage of 5,892,666 kWh. The system's technical and economical viability is evaluated using SAM software. The project has a 20.04-year payback period, an estimated capital cost of $12,365,896, and an LCOE of $0.075/kWh. Annual CO 2 emissions will be reduced by 7.8 kton as a result of the project. • Introduce a novel off-grid hybrid system design. • Substitute storage with a more reliable, cost-effective biomass gasification source. • Utilize a single Stirling engine for both technologies to reduce capital investment and lower LCOE. • Evaluate the energy, economic, and environmental effects of the proposed system. • Assess biomass impact on different sizes of hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]