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The COVID-19 pandemic exerted significant impacts on public health and global economy. Research efforts to develop vaccines at warp speed against SARS-CoV-2 led to novel mRNA, viral vectored, and inactivated vaccines being administered. The current COVID-19 vaccines incorporate the full S protein of the SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan strain but rapidly emerging variants of concern (VOCs) have led to significant reductions in protective efficacies. There is an urgent need to develop next-generation vaccines which could effectively prevent COVID-19. PubMed and Google Scholar were systematically reviewed for peer-reviewed papers up to January 2023. A promising solution to the problem of emerging variants is a DNA vaccine platform since it can be easily modified. Besides expressing whole protein antigens, DNA vaccines can also be constructed to include specific nucleotide genes encoding highly conserved and immunogenic epitopes from the S protein as well as from other structural/non-structural proteins to develop effective vaccines against VOCs. DNA vaccines are associated with low transfection efficiencies which could be enhanced by chemical, genetic, and molecular adjuvants as well as delivery systems. The DNA vaccine platform offers a promising solution to the design of effective vaccines. The challenge of limited immunogenicity in humans might be solved through the use of genetic modifications such as the addition of nuclear localization signal (NLS) peptide gene, strong promoters, MARs, introns, TLR agonists, CD40L, and the development of appropriate delivery systems utilizing nanoparticles to increase uptake by APCs in enhancing the induction of potent immune responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within-host models describe the dynamics of immune cells when encountering a pathogen, and how these dynamics can lead to an individual-specific immune response. This systematic review aims to summarize which within-host methodology has been used to study and quantify antibody kinetics after infection or vaccination. In particular, we focus on data-driven and theory-driven mechanistic models. PubMed and Web of Science databases were used to identify eligible papers published until May 2022. Eligible publications included those studying mathematical models that measure antibody kinetics as the primary outcome (ranging from phenomenological to mechanistic models). We identified 78 eligible publications, of which 8 relied on an Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs)-based modelling approach to describe antibody kinetics after vaccination, and 12 studies used such models in the context of humoral immunity induced by natural infection. Mechanistic modeling studies were summarized in terms of type of study, sample size, measurements collected, antibody half-life, compartments and parameters included, inferential or analytical method, and model selection. Despite the importance of investigating antibody kinetics and underlying mechanisms of (waning of) the humoral immunity, few publications explicitly account for this in a mathematical model. In particular, most research focuses on phenomenological rather than mechanistic models. The limited information on the age groups or other risk factors that might impact antibody kinetics, as well as a lack of experimental or observational data remain important concerns regarding the interpretation of mathematical modeling results. We reviewed the similarities between the kinetics following vaccination and infection, emphasising that it may be worth translating some features from one setting to another. However, we also stress that some biological mechanisms need to be distinguished. We found that data-driven mechanistic models tend to be more simplistic, and theory-driven approaches lack representative data to validate model results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Insect cells can be used to produce viable Virus-like particles (VLPs) based on OaPV3 L1. • VLPs-based ELISA allowed investigating natural immune response to OaPV3 infection. • Anti-VLPs antibodies are useful tools for OaPV3 in situ detection. • OaPV3 VLPs are suitable candidates for the development of prophylactic vaccines. The design of prophylactic and diagnostic tools specific to animal papillomaviruses is hampered by the difficulties of viral in vitro manipulation and by the scarce availability of dedicated biotechnological tools. This paper reports the production of Ovine Papillomavirus 3 (OaPV3)-based virus-like particles (OaPV3-VLPs) in the baculovirus system and their use to investigate host humoral immune response through the establishment of an indirect ELISA test., Polyclonal sera and monoclonal antibodies were generated against OaPV3-VLPs, and their isotype and reactivity were determined. Additionally, antibodies allowed OaPV3 detection in ovine squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) samples by immunohistochemistry. Results encourage the standardization of OaPV3-specific prophylactic and serological diagnostic tools, and open new perspectives for the study of host-viral interaction and SCC development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vaccines against bovine babesiosis must, ideally, induce a humoral immune response characterized by neutralizing antibodies against conserved epitopes and a cellular Th1 immune response. In Babesia bovis , proteins such as AMA-1, MSA-2c, and RAP-1 have been characterized and antibodies against these proteins have shown a neutralizing effect, demonstrating the implication of B and T-cell epitopes in the immune response. There is evidence of the existence of B and T-cell epitopes in these proteins, however, it remains to be defined, the presence of conserved peptides in strains from around the world containing B and T-cell epitopes, and their role in the generation of a long-lasting immunity. The aim in this paper was to identify peptides of Babesia bovis AMA-1, MSA-2c, and RAP-1 that elicit a neutralizing and long-lasting Th1 immune response. Peptides containing B-cell epitopes of AMA-1, MSA-2c and RAP-1, were identified. The immune response generated by each peptide was characterized in cattle. All peptides tested induced antibodies that recognized intraerythrocytic parasites, however, only 5 peptides generated neutralizing antibodies in vitro : P2AMA-1 (6.28%), P3MSA-2c (10.27%), P4MSA-2c (10.42%), P1RAP-1 (32.45%), and P4RAP-1 (36.98%). When these neutralizing antibodies were evaluated as a pool, the inhibition percentage of invasion increased to 52.37%. When the T cellular response was evaluated, two peptides: P3MSA2c and P2AMA1 induced a higher percentage (>70%) of activated CD4 +/CD45RO+ T cells than unstimulated cells. Additionally, both peptides induced the production of gamma interferon (IFN−) in PBMCs from vaccinated cattle after one year proving the implication of a long-lasting Th1 immune response. In conclusion, we identified conserved peptides containing B and T-cell epitopes in antigens of B. bovis that elicit a Th1 immune response and showed evidence that peptides from the same protein elicit different immune responses, which has implication for vaccine development in bovine babesiosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causing COVID-19 is associated with excessive inflammation, as a main reason for severe condition and death. Increased inflammatory cytokines and humoral response to SARS-CoV-2 correlate with COVID-19 immunity and pathogenesis. Importantly, the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines that increase profoundly in systemic circulation appear as part of the clinical pictures of two overlapping conditions, sepsis and the hemophagocytic syndromes. Both conditions can develop lethal inflammatory responses that lead to tissue damage, however, in many patients hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) can be differentiated from sepsis. This is a key issue because the life-saving aggressive immunosuppressive treatment, required in the HLH therapy, is absent in sepsis guidelines. This paper aims to describe the pathophysiology and clinical relevance of these distinct entities in the course of COVID-19 that resemble sepsis and further highlights two effector arms of the humoral immune response (inflammatory cytokine and immunoglobulin production) during COVID-19 infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transcutaneous immunization is the administration of a vaccine on the skin to generate efficient systemic and mucosal immune responses against an antigen. In the present study, reconstituted hepatitis B surface antigen vesicles (HBsAg-REVs) integrated with monophosphoryl lipid A were prepared by the delipidation-reconstitution method and tested as built-in adjuvanted vaccine, system for transcutaneous immunization using a combined approach of tape strippings, and enhanced antigen skin contact time. Prepared vesicles were extensively characterized for size, shape, zeta potential, and antigen protein loading efficiency. Following topical application, HBsAg-REVs skin permeation on isolated rat skin and cell uptake by bone marrow–derived dendritic cells were determined by confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry, respectively. The humoral and cellular immune responses elicited by HBsAg-REVs via transcutaneous immunization were comparable to the marketed intramuscular hepatitis B vaccine formulation with predefined immunization protocols. This study supports that delivery of reconstituted HBsAg vesicles via transcutaneous route may open a new vista for designing topical vaccines with possible immune protection against hepatitis B in future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we propose and investigate a reaction–diffusion virus infection model with humoral immunity and nonlinear incidence. In spatially heterogeneous case, the basic reproduction number of virus infection R 0 is calculated, when R 0 ≤ 1 the global asymptotical stability of the infection-free steady state is established, and when R 0 > 1 the uniform persistence of infected cells and viruses, as well as the existence of antibody-free infection steady state are also obtained. In spatially homogeneous case, the antibody response basic reproduction number R 1 is calculated, by using the Lyapunov functions method and the persistence theory of dynamical systems we obtain that when R 0 > 1 and R 1 ≤ 1 the antibody-free infection equilibrium is globally asymptotically stable, and when R 0 > 1 and R 1 > 1 the model is uniformly persistent and the infection equilibrium exists and is also globally asymptotically stable. Finally, the numerical examples are presented in order to verify the validity of our theoretical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poliovirus and rotavirus share notable similarities. Although rotavirus is not amenable to eradication because of animal reservoirs, live, attenuated oral vaccines have been the bedrock of both prevention and control programs, providing intestinal and humoral immunity. Both programs have also encountered safety concerns and suboptimal immune responses to oral vaccines in low-income settings that have been challenges, prompting the search for alternative solutions. In this paper, we review the progress made by polio prevention and eradication efforts over the past six decades. Specifically, we discuss the roles of the oral polio vaccine (OPV) and the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) in achieving polio eradication, and explore potential application of these lessons to rotavirus. Recent scientific evidence has confirmed that a combined schedule of IPV and OPV adds synergistic value that may give the polio eradication effort the tools to end all poliovirus circulation worldwide. For rotavirus, oral vaccine is the only currently licensed and recommended vaccine for use in all children worldwide, providing heterologous protection against a broad range of strains. However, parenteral rotavirus vaccines are in the pre-clinical and clinical trial stage and insight from polio provides strong justification for accelerating the development of these vaccines. While challenges for parenteral rotavirus vaccines will need to be addressed, such as achieving protection against a broad range of strains, the principle of combined use of oral and parenteral rotavirus vaccines may provide the necessary humoral and intestinal immunity necessary to close the efficacy gaps between developing and developed countries, therefore controlling rotavirus worldwide. This strategy may also potentially reduce risk of intussusception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • CD40+ leukocytes in peripheral blood, head kidney, spleen, intestine and gill were characterized in flounder. • Co-location of CD40 and IgM was detected in the lymphocytes membrane in flounder. • First reported that CD40 molecules were expressed on CD4-1+, CD4-2+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes subsets in flounder. • The variations of CD40+ leukocytes after Hirame novirhabdovirus infection and immunization were investigated in flounder. Abstract CD40 is a crucial signal mediating factor in T-dependent B cell responses and involved in many aspects of cellular and humoral immunity. In this paper, recombinant protein of CD40 in flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) and its antibodies (Abs) were produced, native CD40 molecules in flounder tissues were identified, then the CD40+ leukocytes in T/B lymphocytes were characterized, and the variations of CD40+ leukocytes in flounder after Hirame novirhabdovirus (HIRRV) infection and immunization were investigated, respectively. The results showed that the Abs could specifically recognize native flounder CD40 molecule at 32 kDa. The proportions of CD40+ leukocytes were varied by flounder tissues. CD40+/IgM+ B lymphocytes, CD40+/CD4-1+ T lymphocytes, CD40+/CD4-2+ T lymphocytes and CD40+/CD8+ T lymphocytes in peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) were 1.18 ± 0.27%, 0.69 ± 0.17%, 0.75 ± 0.14% and 0.25 ± 0.14%; were 2.80 ± 0.32%, 0.71 ± 0.19%, 0.88 ± 0.23% and 0.33 ± 0.17% in spleen; 4.11 ± 0.47%, 0.92 ± 0.18%, 1.09 ± 0.17% and 0.9 ± 0.17% in head kidney; 1.92 ± 0.39%, 1.02 ± 0.23%, 1.33 ± 0.38% and 0.67 ± 0.24% in intestine; 1.24 ± 0.36%, 1.21 ± 0.24%, 1.70 ± 0.3% and 0.97 ± 0.21% in gill, respectively. The percentages of CD40+ leukocytes in PBLs were significantly increased in both HIRRV infection and immunization groups, and reached their peak levels at 3rd day with 5.70 ± 0.16% and 6.40 ± 0.13%, respectively. Concluded with our previous study, these data first reported that CD40 molecules were expressed on both B and T lymphocytes in teleost, and had a coordination with T and B lymphocytes in immune responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct cell-to-cell transmission of HIV-1 is proved to be a more efficient means of virus infection than virus-to-cell transmission. In this paper, we incorporate both virus-to-cell and cell-to-cell transmissions into an HIV-1 virus model, which also contains intracellular delay and humoral immunity. By analyzing the characteristic equations, the local stability of feasible equilibria is established. By using Lyapunov functionals and LaSalle’s invariance principle, it is verified that global threshold dynamics of the model can be explicitly described by immune-inactivated reproduction rate and immune-activated reproduction rate. Numerical simulations are carried out to illustrate the corresponding theoretical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hemocyanins are large extracellular respiratory proteins distributed within the hemolymph of arthropods, molluscs and larval stages of certain insects. In the present study, we characterized the humoral immune functions of cation specific antibacterial hemocyanin (Ab-Hcy) from mud crab, S. serrata . The bacteriolytic activity of Ab-Hcy was against pathogenic and non-pathogenic to crustaceans which includes, Bacillus sp. N1, B. flexus N3, E. coli , P. aeruginosa , V. harveyi , V. parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus and also expressed bacteriostatic activity against E. coli , B. flexus N3 and V. harveyi . The agglutination activity of Ab-Hcy ranged from 4-16 against B. flexus N3, E. coli , V. harveyi and V. vulnificus and Ab-Hcy also agglutinated with rat and human O erythrocytes (HA titer: 2). The Ab-Hcy lysed the panel of mammalian erythrocytes and strong hemolytic activity of 1.40, 1.28 and 1.22 units·min − 1 ·mg protein − 1 against human A, B and O erythrocytes respectively. It was also found that the Ab-Hcy possess phenoloxidase (PO) activity by oxidizing L-DOPA. These results suggest that Ab-Hcy from the serum of mud crab, S. serrata , is capable of performing multiple humoral immune functions in addition to oxygen transportation. Statement of relevance This manuscript deals with the humoral immune functions, particularly antibacterial property of hemocyanin in crustacean. In this paper we report the different type of antibacterial activity and other humoral immune functions of a hemocyanin isolated from the serum of mud crab, Scylla serrata . This work will help to understand the role of respiratory molecule in immune system, also will be helpful improve disease free crustacean aquaculture industry. And we also state this research work is relevant and suitable to publish in the Journal “Aquaculture”. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the paper we focus on modelling immune system–cancer cells interactions with time delays included into the model. The first model we consider, is the (Feyissa and Banerjee, 2013) model of humoral immune response, for which we show that the non-negativity property is not preserved. This is the reason we propose a modification, which under the assumption that the tumour is non-immunogenic can be simplified into the system of three equations without delays, that is the second model we consider. For the simplified model we have made mathematical analysis, including asymptotic stability, as well as numerical analysis, showing wide spectrum of possible model dynamics, including globally stable steady state, bistability and oscillatory behaviour. The dynamics of the simplified model is numerically compared with the dynamics of the full model with time delays for the parameter values from the literature. It occurs that if tumour immunogenicity is low time delays have no significant influence on the full system and both systems behave similarly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autoimmunity, gastrointestinal (GI) disorders and schizophrenia have been associated with one another for a long time. This paper reviews these connections and provides a context by which multiple risk factors for schizophrenia may be related. Epidemiological studies strongly link schizophrenia with autoimmune disorders including enteropathic celiac disease. Exposure to wheat gluten and bovine milk casein also contribute to non-celiac food sensitivities in susceptible individuals. Co-morbid GI inflammation accompanies humoral immunity to food antigens, occurs early during the course of schizophrenia and appears to be independent from antipsychotic-generated motility effects. This inflammation impacts endothelial barrier permeability and can precipitate translocation of gut bacteria into systemic circulation. Infection by the neurotropic gut pathogen, Toxoplasma gondii, will elicit an inflammatory GI environment. Such processes trigger innate immunity, including activation of complement C1q, which also functions at synapses in the brain. The emerging field of microbiome research lies at the center of these interactions with evidence that the abundance and diversity of resident gut microbiota contribute to digestion, inflammation, gut permeability and behavior. Dietary modifications of core bacterial compositions may explain inefficient gluten digestion and how immigrant status in certain situations is a risk factor for schizophrenia. Gut microbiome research in schizophrenia is in its infancy, but data in related fields suggest disease-associated altered phylogenetic compositions. In summary, this review surveys associative and experimental data linking autoimmunity, GI activity and schizophrenia, and proposes that understanding of disrupted biological pathways outside of the brain can lend valuable information regarding pathogeneses of complex, polygenic brain disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we investigate the dynamical behavior of two nonlinear models for viral infection with humoral immune response. The first model contains four compartments; uninfected target cells, actively infected cells, free virus particles and B cells. The intrinsic growth rate of uninfected cells, incidence rate of infection, removal rate of infected cells, production rate of viruses, neutralization rate of viruses, activation rate of B cells and removal rate of B cells are given by more general nonlinear functions. The second model is a modification of the first one by including an eclipse stage of infected cells. We assume that the latent-to-active conversion rate is also given by a more general nonlinear function. For each model we derive two threshold parameters and establish a set of conditions on the general functions which are sufficient to determine the global dynamics of the models. By using suitable Lyapunov functions and LaSalle’s invariance principle, we prove the global asymptotic stability of the all equilibria of the models. We perform some numerical simulations for the models with specific forms of the general functions and show that the numerical results are consistent with the theoretical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is a cytotoxic drug that can suppress both humoral and cellular immunity. Combining traditional medicinal herbs and chemotherapy drugs are used to improve immunity and quality of life performance status. In this paper, the effects of plant extracts, active components and their derivatives on immunosuppression of CP are discussed. Appropriate keywords were used to search through PubMed, Google Scholar, and Sciverse. All relevant results published from 1990 to date were chosen for final review. Over 50 references were found in which plant extracts, active components and their derivatives have been tested for their immune protective effects against CP-induced immune toxicity. Although there are several plants shown to be effective in animal models, no study was carried out on human subjects. According to the results; we can claim that plants and their active ingredients are good candidates for alternative adjuvant chemotherapy in reducing the immunotoxicity of CP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The Omicron variant diminishes the neutralizing capability of the antibodies. • Omicron can easily bypass an individual's humoral immune response. • The Omicron variant has more than 50 mutations. • CD8 + T-cell response may show promise against the Omicron variant. The million-dollar question that has been the talk of the day is how effective the COVID 19 vaccines are against the Omicron variant. Still, there is no clear-cut answer to this question but several studies have concluded that this Variant of Concern (VOC) successfully weakens the neutralizing capability of the antibodies acquired from the COVID 19 vaccines and prior infections, which indicates that Omicron can easily bypass an individual's humoral immune response. However, the most significant confusion revolves around cell-mediated immunity tackling the Omicron variant. This paper aims to provide a clear idea about the status of the body's immune surveillance concerning the infection caused by the Omicron variant by producing the effectivity of the humoral and cell-mediated immunity in handling the same. This work also provides complete detail of the various characteristics of the Omicron variant and how it may be a blessing in disguise. The effectiveness of the current vaccines, the transmissibility rate of the variant compared to the other variants, and the importance of administering a booster dose to prevent the spread of this variant are also discussed. Finally, this work aims to bridge the gap between the past and the current status of the Omicron infection and sheds light on the hypothetical idea that herd immunity developed from the SARS-COV2 infection may help tackle other dangerous variants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] Periodontitis (PD) is a multifaceted inflammatory disease connected to bacterial infection that results in the destruction of tooth supporting structures and eventually tooth loss. Given their involvement in infection and inflammation, both metallothionein (MT) and zinc (Zn) might play vital roles in the development and progression of PD. More specifically, both MT and Zn are heavily involved in regulating immune functions, controlling bacterial infection, balancing inflammatory responses, and reducing oxidative stress, all of which are associated with the pathogenesis of PD. This review paper will explore the physiological functions of MT and Zn and hypothesise how dysregulation could negatively affect periodontal health, leading to PD. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) derived from periodontal pathogens, namely P. gingivalis initiates the acute phase response, thus upregulating the expression of MT which leads to the subsequent deficiency of Zn, a hallmark of periodontal disease. This deficiency leads to ineffective NETosis, increases the permeability of the gingival epithelium, and disrupts the humoral immune response, collectively contributing to PD. In addition, the presence of LPS in Zn deficient conditions favours M1 macrophage polarisation and maturation of dendritic cells, and also inhibits the anti-inflammatory activity of regulatory T cells. Collectively, these observations could theoretically give rise to the chronic inflammation seen in PD. A disrupted MT and Zn homeostasis is expected to exert an adverse impact on periodontal health and contribute to the development and progression of PD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Adjuvant CV13 could prepare stable W/O/W emulsion by one-step emulsification. • Adjuvant CV13 containing GSLS had shown a good immune synergistic effect. • FMD vaccine prepared with CV13 containing GSLS induced high level of immune response. There has been an increasing interest in finding new formulations that qualify as vaccine adjuvants, which must be safe, stable, and have the capacity to stimulate a strong immune response. In this study, a basic formulation of a water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) adjuvant CV13 was developed, and ginseng stem-leaf saponins (GSLS) were added as an immune booster into oil phase. The physicochemical properties of the adjuvant were tested. Furthermore, the immune activity and the adjuvant effects, as indicated by the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) antigen were evaluated. The results showed that CV13 was similar in appearance to ISA 206 and could package FMDV antigen into a stable W/O/W emulsion. The FMD vaccine prepared with CV13 alone or CV13 containing GSLS achieved pharmaceutical characteristics comparable to a vaccine prepared with ISA 206, moreover the structural stability of the CV 13 vaccine was found to be better. Mice that were immunized with the FMD vaccine prepared with CV13 containing GSLS presented a significantly higher LPBE antibody titer and splenocyte proliferation rate than those immunized with a vaccine prepared with CV13 alone (p < 0.05). In addition, there was no significant difference between the groups that were immunized with FMD vaccine prepared with CV13 containing GSLS and ISA206 in terms of cellular and humoral immune response. In this paper, CV13 containing GSLS shows excellent immunologic adjuvant effect in mice model, and this new adjuvant may provide a potential choice for FMD vaccine production in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to develop a mathematical model for viral infection with humoral immunity and two modes of transmission that are the classical virus-to-cell infection and the direct cell-to-cell transmission. These both modes are modeled by two general incidence functions. Also, the model incorporates three delays including two distributed delays in cell infection and virus production, and one discrete delay that models the time needed to activate the immune response. We first prove the well-posedness of the developed model and the biological existence of equilibria. Further, the global stability of equilibria and the existence of Hopf bifurcation are investigated by using the direct and indirect Lyapunov methods. An important number of viral infection models and the corresponding results presented in recent studies are improved and extended. • A generalized viral infection model with multi-delays and humoral immunity is developed and rigorously analyzed. • Well-posedness of the model and existence of equilibria are established. • Global stability of the equilibria are established by means of Lyapunov functionals. • Hopf bifurcation and stability switches are also studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to study a general HIV-1 reaction–diffusion model with space-dependent diffusion coefficients and antibody immune response. The model contains four discrete time delays and three categories of infected cells: Latently infected cells, short-lived productively infected cells and long-lived productively infected cells. The effect of highly active antiretroviral therapies (HAART) used to treat HIV-1 is incorporated into the model. The existence, non-negativity and boundedness of solutions are studied in order to verify the well-posedness of the model. All possible equilibria of the model are evaluated and the threshold parameters needed for their existence and stability are investigated. The global asymptotic stability of the corresponding equilibria are proved by building suitable Lyapunov functionals. The numerical simulations are conducted in order to confirm the theoretical results and show the behavior of solutions in space and time. • A general reaction-diffusion HIV infection model with multiple delays is analyzed. • The effect of humoral immunity on virus dynamics is investigated. • The basic properties of the model are studied. • Global stability of the equilibria are established. • Some numerical simulations are carried out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we investigate a reaction–diffusion virus infection model with humoral immunity and nonlinear incidence in heterogeneous and homogenous environments. The model includes simultaneously the virus-to-cell and cell-to-cell transmissions of the infection. The well-posedness of solutions, including the existence of global solutions and the ultimate boundedness, is established. The virus infection reproduction number R 0 is calculated. When R 0 ≤ 1 , it is proved that the infection-free steady state is globally asymptotically stable. Otherwise, when R 0 > 1 then the infection with antibody-free response is uniformly persistent. Furthermore, the antibody-free infection equilibrium is also globally asymptotically stable in spatially homogeneous case. In order to investigate the effect of humoral immunity, the virus infection with antibody response model in the spatially homogeneous environment is considered. The antibody response reproduction number R 1 is calculated. The threshold criteria on the uniform persistence of total model and the global asymptotic stability of the antibody-response infection equilibrium are established. Finally, the numerical examples are presented to illustrate the theoretical results and verify the conjectures. • A diffusive virus infection model with cell-to-cell transmission is proposed. • The threshold dynamics of the model are given. • The virus infection with antibody response model and spatially homogeneous environment is discussed. • Some conjectures are given for the model in the spatial heterogeneous environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]