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Summary Sen’s entitlement thesis rooted in social contract theory has been used to explain access to food, and is used by states to design social protection programs as transfer entitlements to diffuse food insecurities. Social protection programs have now burgeoned in several countries as a strategy to enable the poor to overcome risks, vulnerabilities and poverty. These social protection programs have inclusion and exclusion errors, which current theorization attributes mainly to political clientalism, social vulnerability, elite capture, targeting inefficiency, leakages and corruption, lack of information transparency and improper designing of social protection programs. This paper argues that the errors are due to a more fundamental assumption made in application of social contract and entitlement-based approach to social protection programing. It identifies an uncritical application of Sen’s entitlement thesis to social protection programs, as leading to inclusion and exclusion errors. The main problematic, the paper shows is that the social contract-led entitlement thesis works within the domain of formal rights situated within the state-citizen relations, and as such, misses out on the non-formal entitlements and non-state influences that impact materialization of social protection programs in practice. Evidences from flood prone Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh, India indicate that non-state rules linked with clientele and patronage relations, moral and local political economies trump over formal rights to mediate social protection entitlement outcomes. Rather than abstract state-citizen social contract, it is the moral contracts of reciprocal exchanges with influential patrons embedded in the moral economy of the villages that ultimately ground the social protection entitlement claims of poor villagers. Conceptualizing this process of access as cultures of entitlement, the paper builds a framework for reinterpretation of entitlements and their outcomes, suggesting a recalibration of application of Sen’s entitlement thesis to social protection programs. In conclusion it argues that Sen’s entitlement thesis which is pitched at transfer of economic resources through social protection from the state to the poor is inadequate. Learning from social movements currently leading the transparency and accountability struggles in India, it calls for an instituting and recognition of accountability as new cultural resource and entitlement. In conclusion it argues that information, and accountability as new cultural entitlements, when mobilized through collective agency of the poor can potentially challenge the current cultures of entitlements evidenced in this paper that presently underlie social protection outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the costs of solar PV continuously decrease and pollution legislation imposes less burning of agricultural residues, decentralized renewable energy is increasingly affordable for providing electricity to one billion people lacking access to a power grid. This paper presents a techno-economic feasibility case study of biomass gasification in off-grid and grid-connected mini-grids for community-scale energy application in rural Uttar Pradesh, India. Energy demand data was collected through surveys in a village with irrigation and agro-processing loads and off-grid households and used to construct a seasonal load profile based on statistical methods. This was used to simulate single-source and hybrid mini-grids based on solar PV, biomass gasification and diesel generation using HOMER Pro. Hybrid PV-biomass or PV-diesel systems were found to offer the highest reliability for off-grid power at the lowest cost. Single-source PV was cheaper than biomass gasification, though the cost of electricity is highly sensitive to biomass supply and gasifier maintenance. Both renewable options were around half the cost of diesel generation. The findings held across grid-connected systems with weak, moderate and strong reliability of grid supply. This suggests that biomass gasification-based mini-grids are not cost-competitive with PV unless the two generation sources are combined in a hybrid system, though they require operational testing prior to implementation. Image 1 • Hybrid PV–biomass or PV–diesel systems offer higher reliability at lower cost. • PV is cheaper than biomass gasification mini-grids for productive energy provision. • Grid-connected PV offers lowest LCOE over 20 years for strong and weak grid supply. • LCOE of biomass systems is highly sensitive to biomass requirement and maintenance. • PV–biomass systems appear resilient to operating parameters but lack field testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When on March 24, 2020 the Government of India ordered a complete lockdown of the country as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, it had serious unwanted implications for farmers and the supply chains for agricultural produce. This was magnified by the fact that, as typically in developing countries, India's economy is strongly based on farming, industrialization of its agricultural systems being only modest. This paper reports on the various consequences of the COVID-19 lockdown for farming systems in India, including the economy, taking into account the associated emergency responses of state and national governments. Combining quantitative and qualitative sources of information with a focus on the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, including expert elicitation and a survey of farmers, the paper identifies and analyzes the different factors that contributed to the severe disruption of farming systems and the agricultural sector as a whole following the lockdown. Among other issues, our study finds that the lack of migrant labor in some regions and a surplus of workers in others greatly affected the April harvest, leading to a decline in agricultural wages in some communities and an increase in others, as well as to critical losses of produce. Moreover, the partial closure of rural markets and procurement options, combined with the insufficient supply of products, led to shortages of food supplies and dramatically increased prices, which particularly affected urban dwellers and the poor. We argue that the lessons learned from the COVID-19 crisis could fuel the development of new sustainable agro-policies and decision-making in response not only to future pandemics but also to the sustainable development of agricultural systems in India and in developing countries in general. • The lockdown in response to COVID-19 has seriously disrupted Indian farms. • Farms have been less profitable amid rising food prices, putting pressure on food security. • A lack of migrant labor has led to a loss of produce and affected the spring harvest. • Experience and relief packages may help to develop Indian agriculture sustainably. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The Urban Health Initiative (UHI) was initiated in 2009 with the goal of increasing family planning (FP) use among the poor in urban areas of Uttar Pradesh, India. The Measurement, Learning & Evaluation project (MLE) was tasked with rigorous impact evaluation of the UHI. This paper presents the impact evaluation findings of the UHI program.Study Design: The MLE design includes a longitudinal sample of women and health facilities with baseline (2010) and endline (2014) data collection in six cities in Uttar Pradesh, India. At baseline, samples representative of women in each city were selected with oversampling of the poor. Eighty-four percent of women interviewed at baseline were reinterviewed 4 years later at endline. The longitudinal data support a within/fixed-effects approach to identification of program impact on changes in modern FP use.Results: Impact evaluation results show significant effects of exposure to both demand and supply side program activities. In particular, women exposed to brochures (marginal effect: 6.96, p<.001), billboards/posters/wall hangings (marginal effect: 2.09, p<.05), and FP on the television (marginal effect: 2.46, p<.001) were significantly more likely to be using a modern method at endline. In addition, we found borderline significance for being exposed to a community health worker (marginal effect: 1.66, p<.10) and living close to an improved public and private supply environment where UHI undertook activities (marginal effects and p values: 2.48, p<.05 and 1.56, p<.10, respectively).Conclusions: UHI program activities were designed to complement the Government of India's strategies aimed at ensuring access to and provision of FP to urban poor populations. The effective demand- and supply-side strategies of the UHI program are therefore likely to be sustainable and scalable to other urban areas in India.Implications Statement: Findings from this study are important for designing sustainable and scalable FP strategies for urban India where increases in FP use will be relevant for meeting international FP targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar lamps are a quick, affordable, and effective way to provide basic lighting for households in rural areas of developing countries. However, implementers and researchers argue that the market for solar products is hampered by a lack of awareness and willingness to pay (WTP) for solar technology. In this paper, we investigate awareness of solar products, household motivation to adopt solar technology, household perception of solar lamps when compared to kerosene-based lighting devices, and lastly, the availability of electricity after dark. We analyzed a repeated-measures (longitudinal) data of 1159 rural households in energy-poor villages in the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh, India. Longitudinal logistic regression analyses were performed to study how various factors influence users WTP for solar lamps at Indian market price (~8.61 US$) over time. We find that households awareness of various solar products and their motivation to adopt solar technology has increased over time but there is much room to grow awareness in Bihar, Jharkhand and Uttar Pradesh, especially for solar home systems and solar water pumps. Our model predicted that the households WTP for solar lamps at the market price increased with high income but it is significantly moderated by their level of awareness of solar products and their motivation to adopt solar technology. These findings suggest that increasing awareness of solar products through various dissemination programs leading to significant interest in solar products among people which in turn may enhance their WTP for solar products. • Repeated-measures (longitudinal) data of 1159 rural households in energy-poor villages in India were analyzed. • This study determines factors that influence the households willingness to pay (WTP) for solar lamps in rural India. • Awareness of solar products coupled with motivation to adopt solar technology significantly raise the probability of WTP. • WTP for solar lamps at the market price increases with income. • Awareness of solar products through various programs lead to significant interest in solar energy products among people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]