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This paper (Part 2 in the paper series), building on earlier studies examining the Australian response, extends on findings related to travel activity, commuting, and attitudes towards COVID-19 measures (Part 1 in the paper series). In this paper we focus in detail on the impact of, and experiences with, working from home (WFH), perhaps the largest of the positive unintended consequence of the pandemic, with respect to transport, and a key lens through which the changing patterns in travel activity and attitudes discussed in Part 1 need to be understood. We conclude that through the widespread adoption of WFH as a result of nationwide public health orders, there is evidence emerging that WFH is now seen as an appealing instrument of change by employees and employers, there is growing support to continue to support WFH into the future. This represents a significant potential contribution to the future management of the transport network, especially in larger metropolitan areas. We also discuss policy implications of this result and what the international community may take from the Australian experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper investigates how the interplay between six organisational elements of public transport systems (conditions) – i.e. integration of planning responsibilities within an authority at the regional/metropolitan level; land-use and transport integration; long-term metropolitan public transport planning; agency over funding; fare integration, and allocation of risks between government and operators - influence two key performance indicators (outcomes) – modal split and cost-recovery. The study focuses on selected metropolitan areas in Europe, Australia, and Canada, and employs Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA). QCA can handle multiple explanatory conditions in combination, framing the relationship between conditions and studied outcomes in terms of necessity and sufficiency. The paper reveals three alternative combinations of organisational elements that are sufficient for achieving each outcome, underscoring that modal split and cost-recovery depend on the combined effects of multiple conditions (conjunctural causality), and that different paths can lead to similar results (equifinality). Furthermore, even though both outcomes are linked to higher usage of public transport, findings suggest that each of them might require decision-makers to give attention to different elements. Higher modal split is closely linked to both integration between land-use and transport, and the integration of planning responsibilities within an authority at the regional/metropolitan level. Higher cost-recovery, in turn, requires focus on the way agency over funding and risk allocation strategies shape incentives for savings and/or revenue generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need to recognise and account for the influence of working from home on commuting activity has never been so real as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Not only does this change the performance of the transport network, it also means that the way in which transport modellers and planners use models estimated on a typical weekday of travel and expand it up to the week and the year must be questioned and appropriately revised to adjust for the quantum of working from home. Although teleworking is not a new phenomenon, what is new is the ferocity by which it has been imposed on individuals throughout the world, and the expectation that working from home is no longer a temporary phenomenon but one that is likely to continue to some non-marginal extent given its acceptance and revealed preferences from both many employees and employ where working from home makes good sense. This paper formalises the relationship between working from home and commuting by day of the week and time of day for two large metropolitan areas in Australia, Brisbane and Sydney, using a mixed logit choice model, identifying the influences on such choices together with a mapping model between the probability of working from home and socioeconomic and other contextual influences that are commonly used in strategic transport models to predict demand for various modes by location. The findings, based on Wave 3 (approximately 6 months from the initial outbreak of the pandemic) of an ongoing data collection exercise, provide the first formal evidence for Australia in enabling transport planners to adjust their predicted modal shares and overall modal travel activity for the presence of working from home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper estimates the short-term reduction in money and time costs associated with a reduction in car and public transport commuting activity in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area (GSMA) during a period of the COVID-19 pandemic in which Australia started to see an easing of restrictions (see Beck and Hensher 2020a). As of late May 2020, three months after COVID-19 resulted in restrictions in Australia, we saw an annual travel time reduction for car and public transport commuters in the GSMA of $5.58 billion, representing a 54.02% reduction in the Pre-COVID-19 total time costs, much of which we would suggest can be associated with reductions in congestions costs. Adjusting further for reduced employment volumes relative to pre-COVID-19 levels, to take into account reduced commuting activity due, in part, to a lower volume of work associated with a loss of employment or lower employment hours, the annual time cost reduction for all commuters who still have regular pre-COVID-19 levels of employment are estimated as $4.4 billion. Hence there is $1.17 billion worth of reduced time costs associated with significantly reduced employment hours, including a loss of employment. The implications for road investment linked to congestion in particular is profound, and shows how much of an increase in benefit to society, through congestion busting, can be obtained by more flexible work arrangements, even allowing for some switching into car out of public transport. Whether the current decrease in travel costs will be long-lasting is unknown, but it does support the appeal of working from home, if it is sustainable, as a policy lever to reduce levels of congestion on the roads and crowding in public transport. • Estimates the short-term reduction in money and time costs associated with commuting activity during a period of the COVID-19 pandemic. • Annual travel time reduction for all car and PT commuters of $5.58 billion, a 54.02% reduction in the Pre-COVID-19 total time costs. • The implications for road investment linked to congestion in particular is profound. • Shows how much of an increase in benefit to society, through congestion busting, can be obtained by more flexible work arrangements. • Support the appeal of working from home as a policy lever to reduce levels of congestion on the roads and crowding in public transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Literature suggests that value of time (VOT) may decrease due to advent of AVs. • Reduction in VOT may impact households' residential location choices. • This expectation was tested empirically using stated choice methods. • Empirical results do not suggest drastic changes in VOT due to AVs. The literature suggests that autonomous vehicles (AVs) may drastically change the user experience of private automobile travel by allowing users to engage in productive or relaxing activities while travelling. As a consequence, the generalised cost of car travel may decrease, and car users may become less sensitive to travel time. By facilitating private motorised mobility, AVs may eventually impact land use and households' residential location choices. This paper seeks to advance the understanding of the potential impacts of AVs on travel behaviour and land use by investigating stated preferences for combinations of residential locations and travel options for the commute in the context of autonomous automobile travel. Our analysis draws from a stated preference survey, which was completed by 512 commuters from the Sydney metropolitan area in Australia and provides insights into travel time valuations in a long-term decision-making context. For the analysis of the stated choice data, mixed logit models are estimated. Based on the empirical results, no changes in the valuation of travel time due to the advent of AVs should be expected. However, given the hypothetical nature of the stated preference survey, the results may be affected by methodological limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid urban population growth promotes the outward expansion of cities and strengthens demand for outer metropolitan infrastructure. In a practical sense, creating sustainable greenfield communities is problematic given the expensive, multidimensional nature of infrastructure. Inwardly-looking metropolitan imaginaries can result. Although urban political economy perspectives acknowledge variability in local public-private sector relations, thereby raising the prospect of developer obligations, the latter are not without limited. To further strengthen understanding of sub-national government capacities and outer metropolitan infrastructure policy, additional institutionalist interpretations are necessary. Alongside or in between the limits of developer contributions and ad hoc public funding streams, this paper confirms the importance of extended policy perspectives by identifying and evaluating three state level policy responses on the outskirts of Melbourne, Australia: spatially designated funding, public private partnerships (PPPs) and community infrastructure brokers. • Large scale expansion on Melbourne's edge, plus multidimensional infrastructure deficits as identified by council officers • The importance of institutionally sensitive urban political economy perspectives for interpreting infrastructure deficits • The importance of investigating outer metropolitan policy dynamics beyond developer contributions • Three emerging policies: spatially designated funding, public private partnerships and infrastructure community brokers • The need to further investigate sub-national local–state government relations given partial responses [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Young people with complex support needs who live outside metropolitan areas face unique challenges. Issues such as poor educational and employment opportunities, homelessness, racism, problematic substance use, challenging behaviour, disability and mental illness can be magnified and lead to judgment and marginalisation in small communities such as those in rural and regional areas. As a result of poor resourcing of services in these areas, young people may be forced to transition from place to place, service to service as a way of coping with life challenges. This paper presents findings from interviews and focus groups with service providers who support such young people in regional and rural Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria in Australia. Service providers reported similar challenges to professionals working in urban areas, such as navigating inter-agency and inter-professional work and dealing with funding shortages. However, these issues were amplified by the need to work across broad geographical areas, to recruit and retain skilled workers and to respond to the many structural and resource inadequacies in smaller communities. While services aimed to be responsive to young people, the challenges of providing support in a non-metropolitan context could create a context in which young people either disengaged from services or poor response resulted in systemic escalation to crisis. The implications for policy and practice are explored. Highlights • Supports to young people with complex support needs in non-metropolitan areas in Australia are poorly resourced. • Non-metropolitan services work best when they are based on relationship-based practice and local community needs. • Interagency collaboration is essential when working across broad geographical areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Outdoor thermal comfort significantly influences the users' experience in urban places; affecting their extent of usage. The paper aims to identify the outdoor thermal benchmarks for the temperate oceanic (Cfb) climate zones in Australia. It examines the perception of thermal comfort in two urban places in Melbourne city. Field measurements were conducted during summer and winter seasons along with 2123 valid questionnaires and observations in both contexts. Micrometeorological parameters were measured and used to calculate the mean radiant temperature and the physiological equivalent temperature (PET). The questionnaire provided information regarding the thermal sensations and preferences of the users using ASHRAE seven-point and McIntyre scales respectively. The quantitative analysis is used to calculate the range of outdoor thermal comfort in Melbourne. This was ranged between 20 °C and 25 °C PET. Additionally, the neutral and preferred temperature were found to be 20.4 °C and 19.2 °C respectively. Variations in different benchmarks were observed with different seasons and types of urban places. The results endorse the significant impact of thermal adaptation factors on the users' comfort levels and acceptability for micrometeorological environments. The findings also identify the different thermal benchmarks that help urban designers creating comfortable outdoor places within the oceanic temperate climatic zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Complications in early pregnancy can lead to pregnancy loss (miscarriage) and ultimately the presentation of a woman to their local emergency department (ED). Miscarriage is a common occurrence, with one in six pregnancies resulting in pregnancy loss. 1 Unfortunately medical and nursing care does not change the likelihood of a threatened miscarriage progressing to pregnancy loss; this is a highly emotional and stressful time for the woman and her family. Research has shown that women have often felt dissatisfied with the care provided in the emergency department and have reported lower levels of satisfaction (Geller et al., 2010 2 , Indig et al., 2011 3 ). This paper explores the challenges in the provision of emergency department healthcare for women presenting to metropolitan EDs and compares these to those faced by women who present to non-metropolitan EDs with early pregnancy complications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unbalanced distribution of general practitioners (GPs) across geographic areas has been acknowledged as a problem in many countries around the world. Quantitative information regarding GPs' location decision over their lifecycle is essential in developing effective initiatives to address the unbalanced distribution and retention of GPs. This paper describes the age profile of GPs' location decision and relates it to individual characteristics. I use the Medicine in Australia: Balancing Employment and Life (MABEL) survey of doctors (2008–2012) with a sample size of 5810 male and 5797 female GPs. I employ a mixed logit model to estimate GPs' location decision. The results suggest that younger GPs are more prepared to go to rural and remote areas but they tend to migrate back to urban areas as they age. Coming from a rural background increases the likelihood of choosing rural areas, but with heterogeneity: While male GPs from a rural background tend to stay in rural and remote areas regardless of age, female GPs from a rural background are willing to migrate to urban areas as they age. GPs who obtain basic medical degrees overseas are likely to move back to urban areas in the later stage of their careers. Completing a basic medical degree at an older age increases the likelihood of working outside major cities. I also examine factors influencing GPs' location transition patterns and the results further confirm the association of individual characteristics and GPs' location–age profile. The findings can help target GPs who are most likely to practise and remain in rural and remote areas, and tailor policy initiatives to address the undesirable distribution and movement of GPs according to the identified heterogeneous age profile of their location decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Homelessness is often conceptualised as an urban problem. However, significant numbers of people experiencing homelessness live in regional, rural and remote areas, where distances can be considerable and there are fewer housing options and services available to assist them. Drawing on the perspectives of service providers, this paper discusses contested understandings of home and homelessness as well as housing and service provision in two remote Western Australian mining towns. The key findings were that normative policy definitions of homelessness that focused on ‘living in a house’ as a ‘home’ were not always culturally relevant for local Aboriginal communities, and there was limited access to adequate housing options in both communities. Furthermore, ‘top down’ funding and decisions often occurred without community consultation, which fragmented service delivery, limited ‘grassroots’ participation and constrained opportunities for locally relevant service responses. These findings highlight Westernised and urban assumptions underpinning the policy domain in which housing and homelessness responses are determined, emphasising the limits of current conceptualisations for Aboriginal people and service providers working in remote areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aquifers in the Perth Metropolitan Region of Western Australia have been explored and exploited for water supply since the late 19th century. Throughout the early 20th century, the availability of warm groundwater from the Yarragadee confined aquifer at relatively shallow depths was popular with laundries, public baths and for industrial applications but it was not until 1997 that the first direct-use geothermal project for bathing and swimming was implemented. By 2016, a dozen commercially successful geothermal schemes will use low enthalpy geothermal water supplies from the Yarragadee aquifer at depths ranging from 750 to 1150 m for heating leisure centres, building air and outdoor pools. With distributed heat estimated to more than 110 × 10 3 GJ per year and up to 180 × 10 3 GJ when considering projects currently at construction stage but not yet commissioned, Perth currently has the biggest concentration of operating geothermal direct-use projects in Australia. The development of geothermal projects in Perth was made possible by early achievements pioneered by designers from the groundwater industry. This paper presents the hydrogeological setting of the Yarragadee aquifer which is the main geothermal resource in Perth, the well and surface heat exchanger design criteria, the economic and environmental considerations, and the best practices and circumstances that led to the 100% success rate of direct-use geothermal projects in Perth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A hybrid latent variable ordered logit model for the frequency of ride-hailing use. • Multi-variate models for autonomous and pooled ride-hailing adoption. • Examining the regional and metropolitan dimension in the use and adoption. • Investigating latent psychological and observed factors for different trip purposes. • Exploring impacts of ride-hailing on other transport modes and travel behaviour. While ride-hailing has become ubiquitous in most metropolitan areas, it is still unclear how it prevails in the regional areas, especially after the emergence of new services of pooling or self-driving rides. This paper contributes to this knowledge gap by examining the regional/metropolitan dimension in the factors influencing the frequency of ride-hailing use and the demand for pooled and autonomous vehicle (AV) rides in Australia. Through individual-level survey data, we found that there is indeed a divide between factors affecting not only the frequency of using ride-hailing in the status quo but also in the future adoption of new services of pooled and AV-based services. Using the hybrid discrete choice model, we identify several latent psychological constructs that influence the use of ride-hailing services, namely being pro-technology, pro-pooling, pro-AV, anti-driving and security-cautious traits. Moreover, the results of multivariate models point to different observed and latent characteristics influencing the adoption of pooled and AV ride-hailing services for various trip purposes. In line with the literature, it was found that the socio-demographic characteristics that affect the frequency of use or adopting pooled and AV services in future include gender, age, income, education attainment, employment status, car ownership, and the current travel behaviour. We also found that ride-hailing in Australia has played more as a substitution role for public transport, private car and taxi than as a complementary role or feeder of the public transport system, both in the metropolitan and regional areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Australian affordable rental housing sector has historically faced barriers to green building (GB) adoption due to issues of split-incentives, despite financial support from the commonwealth. This paper explores how a recent shift towards bond-based funding mechanisms offer an opportunity to integrate green building practices, and influence regional social, environmental and economic outcomes. A novel system dynamics model is developed to forecast a business as usual (BAU) and green-building scenario framed around the recently introduced Australian Affordable Housing Bond Aggregator (AHBA) policy framework. The purpose of the model is to examine how a mandate on green building standards together with the use of green versus conventional bonds impact social, environmental and economic outcomes of the framework over a 20-year horizon, within the South East Queensland metropolitan area of Australia. The study determined that the green building framework would deliver 2.37% less housing overall due to higher initial capital costs. However, offers substantial long-term energy and water efficiency benefits, improved affordability for tenants due to reduced utility costs, deferred water and energy infrastructure benefits, and considerable contributions towards Australia's carbon emission reduction targets. Tenants are expected to benefit from a 45–59% reduction in energy and a 27% decrease in water bills. Moreover, a shift to affordable green building policy could contribute to 2.9% of Australia's Conference of Parties (2030) carbon emissions reduction target if applied nationally. The study concludes with a sensitivity analysis to reveal policy refinement recommendations that would yield the benefits of green affordable housing without sacrificing the small reduction in housing stock delivered by the proposed program. • A System dynamics model is applied to determine affordable housing policy outcomes. • A business as usual versus green building policy scenario are compared and analysed. • Three policy recommendations are presented to improve the GB scenario. • GB policy benefits are substantial therefore developer grant scheme is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Venous leg ulcers represent the most common chronic wound problem managed in Australian primary care. Despite the prevalence of the condition, there is an evidence-practice gap in both diagnosis and management of venous leg ulcers. We used the Theoretical Domains Framework to identify barriers and enablers perceived by primary care practitioners in implementing venous leg ulcer guidelines in clinical practice. We collected data to explore the experiences of practice nurses and general practitioners related to their use of clinical practice guidelines in management of venous leg ulcers. We recruited participants from primary care settings located in metropolitan and rural areas across Victoria, Australia. We recruited general practitioners (15) and practice nurses (20). We conducted 35 semi-structured face-to-face and telephone interviews. Content analysis of health practitioners' statements was performed and barriers to implementing clinical practice guidelines were mapped across the Theoretical Domains Framework theoretical domains. Six main domains from the Theoretical Domains Framework (Environmental context and resources, Knowledge, Skills, Social influences, Social/Professional Role and Identity and Belief about Capabilities) best explained these barriers and enablers. Many participants were not aware of venous leg ulcer clinical practice guidelines. Those that were aware, stated that finding and accessing guidelines was challenging and most participants relied on other sources of information. Venous leg ulcer management was greatly influenced by professional experience and suggestions from colleagues. Other barriers included busy clinical practice, absence of handheld Doppler ultrasonography, insufficient skills and a lack of confidence related to the use of technology to rule out arterial involvement prior to compression application, a particular skill related to venous leg ulcer management that will impact on healing outcomes. We identified a number of barriers and the lack of enablers that influence the uptake of venous leg ulcer clinical practice guidelines in primary care. This paper adds a theoretically sound, systematic approach for understanding and addressing the behaviour change required to improve translation of venous leg ulcer clinical practice guidelines in clinical practice. Tweetable abstract: The need to optimise venous leg ulcer clinical practice guidelines (CPG) has never been greater as the current estimate of health cost is AUD3billion and increasing due to rising epidemics of diabetes and obesity. We found most primary care health practitioners are unaware of CPG and this will impact on health and healing outcomes in Australian primary care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this article is to investigate whether the neo-liberal goal of global economic competitiveness when included alongside image-inspired social goals such as liveability and environmental goals such as sustainability can lead to policies that impact positively on health and health equity. The paper presents an analysis of the content and intent of strategic planning and transport plans from two Australian state governments. The analysis was undertaken using a thematic document analysis of each plan and interviews with agents (n = 21) directly involved in the preparation of each document. Key strategic documents formulated under a neo-liberal hegemony simultaneously provided and reduced opportunities to promote and advance health. The policies viewed goals like liveability and sustainability as means of enhancing their cities' image in global competition for exogenous capital flows. Although liveability has many definitions, one definition was able to be used in one jurisdiction as an avenue to include a broad array of social determinants of health into urban planning policy. However, a productivity or a narrowly focussed image narrative can undermine the social determinants of health credentials of liveability. Overemphasising immediate city problems like road congestion as mechanisms to enhance global competitiveness can undermine necessary long-term strategies for city planning that are known to improve liveability and human health. Even where liveability is at the fore, there is a high risk of exacerbating spatial inequities through liveability investments for competitive advantage because they tend to flow to parts of cities with the greatest connections to the global economy, not those with the greatest social need. A neo-liberal-inspired competitive city paradigm provides opportunities for the advancement of health in urban development. However, when driven by the goals of productivity and/or liveability as image enhancement it can potentially exacerbate health inequities. • Global competition has raised city image as an important policy consideration. • Liveability has become a normative planning goal due to its links with global image. • Liveability helps incorporate health objectives into urban planning policy. • Overriding emphasis on productivity can undermine health benefits of liveability. • Liveability as a goal has the potential to exacerbate health inequity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]