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Hydrogen supplying to industrial users is currently the major hydrogen business worldwide and the demand for hydrogen is almost entirely supplied from fossil fuels. In the last years a widespread interest on hydrogen has grown as energy vector for the decarbonization of multiple sectors, including industry, transport and buildings. Nevertheless, the impact of natural gas and other fossil fuels substitution with hydrogen is highly affected by the mix of different technologies and energy sources applied for hydrogen generation. The paper aims to investigate current CO 2 emissions related with hydrogen generation in Australia and Italy by means of PEM and alkaline technologies; and to evaluate the potential impact considering cell characteristics variation and 3 scenarios based on energy mix. A sensitivity analysis is performed to identify the critical parameters. Based on experimental data, the energy consumption for hydrogen production using PEM technology is more sensitive to cell voltage compared to current density, which indicates the importance of cell manufacturing and electrolyte resistance. In addition, by performing sensitivity analysis regarding energy sources scenarios it is found that carbon dioxide emission in Australia is more sensitive to renewable energy sources rather than Italy. [Display omitted] • Importance of manufacturing and electrolyte resistance because of high PEM energy consumption sensitivity to cell voltage. • Predicted emission in 2030 is 5–10 kg CO 2 using PEM/alkaline technology in Italy. • 18% reduction of national electricity grid CO 2 emission in Australia is predicted. (In 2030 in comparison to 2019). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen is a potential future solution addressing global warming, climate change, and energy security challenges. It efficiently allows for storing excess renewable energy and generating heat and electricity without increasing greenhouse gas emissions. It can create a practical pathway to replace fossil fuel vehicles and move toward a net-zero transport sector. Various hydrogen strategies and industry roadmaps have been developed to identify key goals, set targets for progress, and develop strategic plans to remove barriers. As identified through these documents, the development of consistent national and international codes and standards and the creation of clear procedures and regulations are essential for the safe implementation and adaptation of hydrogen systems, leading to the successful process of hydrogen sector. This paper provides a comprehensive and critical review of the different aspects of hydrogen safety to advance hydrogen regulations, codes, and standards. While it summarises the key international hydrogen frameworks, the main focus of the paper is on Australian plans, progress, and working groups for hydrogen deployment that will help future green energy society. • The safety developments affect the cost of Australian hydrogen scaling targets. • Training and safety developments are essential to achieve public trust in Australia. • Better community engagement is needed to move from hydrogen planning to its development. • Data-based tools assist the development of hydrogen safety procedures in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microgrids are extensively integrated into electrical systems due to their many technical, economic, and environmental advantages. However, they encounter a challenge as they experience high-frequency fluctuations caused by the stochastic nature of renewable energy generation, electric loads, and the presence of Electric Vehicles (EVs). Therefore, various techniques, algorithms, and controllers have been introduced to ensure effective Load Frequency Control (LFC) and maintain a stable power system in microgrids. These methods aim to ensure that the system's frequency remains stable and within an acceptable range, especially when faced with changing load demands and other factors. This paper presents a novel enhanced control approach, Particle Swarm Optimization-Trained Artificial Neural Network (PSO-TANN), to optimize the load frequency model of a microgrid with vehicle-to-grid integration. The results are then compared under various scenarios, including renewable energy integration, EV charging and discharging dynamics, and varying load demands. The comparative analysis involves assessing the performance of the conventional Proportional–Integral–Derivative (PID) controller, the PSO-PID controller, and the newly proposed controlling technique. The suggested controller attains 99.904% efficiency with a negligible mean squared error of 1.1112 × 10−7, decreasing the integrated time absolute error to 1.0 × 10−4. It shows rapid response, precise targeting, and quick peak output ability, with marginal overshoot and undershoot, and a transient time of 28.5626 s, efficiently controlling microgrid frequency. Stability analysis validates the effectiveness of the proposed PSO-TANN controller in ensuring stability within the microgrid's LFC system during uncertainties and disturbances. This establishes resilience, diminishes settling time, and maintains reliable performance while controlling frequency. • An investigation into an islanded microgrid's Load Frequency Control (LFC) model framework has been conducted, comprising diesel generator, solar PV system, wind turbine, and EVs operating in vehicle-to-grid mode to supply power to electric loads, consequently impacting the frequency dynamics of the microgrid system. • A novel enhanced control approach, Particle Swarm Optimization-Trained Artificial Neural Network (PSO-TANN) has been implemented to optimize the load frequency model of a microgrid. • An extensive comparative analysis with other controllers, including PID and PSO-PID, is conducted across diverse scenarios involving renewable energy integration and EV charging and discharging dynamics under various load disturbances to reduce settling time, control system frequency, and ensure reliable performance. • The stability analysis validates the efficiency of the proposed PSO-TANN controller in ensuring reliability during uncertainties and disturbances, maintaining overall robustness and stability of the LFC system within the microgrid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increased penetration of renewable energy sources (RESs) as an effective mechanism to reduce carbon emissions leads to an increased weather dependency for power and energy systems. This has created dynamic operation and degradation phenomena, which affect the lifetime estimation of the assets operated with RESs. For the reliable and efficient operation of RES it is crucial to monitor the health of its constituent components and feature selection is a crucial step for building robust and accurate health monitoring approaches. In this context, this paper presents a probabilistic feature selection approach, which probabilistically weights and selects features through a heuristic and iterative process for an improved asset lifetime estimation. Power transformers are key power grid assets and they are used to demonstrate the validity and impact of the proposed approach. The approach is tested on two different photovoltaic power plants operated in Spain and Australia. Results consistently show that the proposed feature-selection approach reduces the prediction error and consistently selects relevant features. The approach has been applied to transformer lifetime estimation, but it can be generally applied to assist in the lifetime estimation of other components operated in RESs. Part of the studies presented here as well as source codes are all open-source under the GitHub repository https://github.com/iramirezg/FeatureSelection. • Probabilistic feature selection approach for improved asset lifetime estimation. • Integration of environmental features for improved renewable-operated asset lifetime. • Systematic and robust feature weighting methodology. • Improved transformer lifetime estimation including sensor and environmental data. • Validated on two real photovoltaic power plant case studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australia has significant offshore wind resources that can support ever-increasing power demand and hence provide a long-term contribution to the net-zero target by 2050. Although some offshore wind farm projects are proposed in Australia, the industry is not mature enough to justify the benefits and display economic opportunities. More specifically, the techno-economic analysis of offshore wind energy has not been systematically mapped in Australia. Therefore, the investigation of the spatial variation of technical feasibility and economic potential of offshore wind is vital to identify the potential regions and to develop strategies for future offshore wind farm developments in Australia. This paper presents detailed mappings of the techno-economic potential of offshore wind energy in Victoria-Tasmania's exclusive economic zone. Offshore wind energy resources are assessed in the paper in terms of energy availability and variability and the feasibility of various offshore wind technologies is investigated, including turbines, foundation types and transmission topologies. In addition, the high-fidelity life-cycle cost models and two innovative evaluation matrices are developed to assess the economic potential of offshore energy farms in South-eastern Australia. The impact of local power system regulation costs and future carbon prices on the viability of offshore wind is also investigated in this paper. It is concluded that the detailed mapping approach and analysis in the paper can provide a systematic tool for industry partners, investors and policymakers at the pre-planning stage of developing offshore renewable energy systems. • The technical feasibility of offshore wind is mapped under various constraints. • The novel LACE and high-fidelity LCC assessment models are developed. • The techno-economic potential is systemically mapped in South-eastern Australia. • The impacts of electricity market regulation and future carbon prices are studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offshore wind energy and wave energy are two exploitable sources of renewable energy available in the same marine environment. A co-located energy harvesting system of these two resources has the potential to play a leading role in the recent renewable energy mix mandate. A co-located system of mature offshore wind technology and a nascent wave energy technology can exploit the synergies of the two technologies, including the reduced cost, the easy operation and maintenance, and more importantly the potential of decreased power variability. This paper deals with a multi-site analysis of wind and wave power resources, and the estimation of exploitable energy through different wind turbines and wave energy converters (WECs). Results are presented for NSW Australia, but the devised strategy is generic and can be implemented in any region. Ten WECs, with different operating principles, are used for the estimation of the exploitable wave power, and the best performing converter is considered for the co-located wind-wave farm. A power fluctuation factor is introduced to quantify the reduction in power variability of the co-located wind-wave farm. Different percentage mixes of wind and wave energy are evaluated for the co-located wind-wave farm in the multi-site analysis. •A multi-site analysis of wind and wave for estimation of exploitable energy. •Performance evaluation of wind and wave energy conversion technologies. •Power variability representation with power fluctuation factor for a co-located farm. •Characterization of percentage share of wind and wave in a co-located farm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparing the United Kingdom's Renewables Obligation and Australia's Renewable Energy Target, this paper reconstructs the market for green certificates in which penalties are imposed on missed certificates. Our analysis shows that excess demand in the Renewables Obligation makes the penalty the minimum certificate price, but excess supply in the Renewable Energy Target makes the penalty the maximum certificate price. Further, excess supply also implies that the sales of certificates are not guaranteed in the Renewable Energy Target. Therefore, compared to the Renewables Obligation, generators face greater risk under the Renewable Energy Target as there is more uncertainty about the price of certificates and the possibility of sales. • Reconstruct demand and supply curves for TGC models. • Excess demand (supply) makes the penalty the minimum (maximum) certificate price. • The recycling mechanism pushes up the certificate price in the RO. • The refunding mechanism pushes down the certificate price in the RET. • Generators under TGC with excess supply face greater price risk and volume risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To meet the future energy demand and avert any looming crises, efforts are being carried out to utilize sustainable and renewable energy resources. In this paper, the naturally occurring non-linearity and non-stationarity deficiencies within the climatological predictors to forecast solar radiation (Rdn) are resolved via a multivariate empirical mode decomposition method (MEMD). First, a set of antecedent weekly lags at timescale (t -1) of input datasets were collated and then were divided into training and testing subsets. The MEMD method is restricted to dissolve the training and testing climatic data independently into intrinsic modes functions (IMFs). As the numbers of total IMFs were very large, the singular value decomposition (SVD) algorithm is accustomed for dimensionality reduction simultaneously capturing the most relevant oscillatory features embedded within the IMFs. Finally, the random forest (RF) model is applied to forecast Rdn at selected solar-rich regions in Australia. The resulting hybrid MEMD-SVD-RF model was established as a consequence of the aforementioned modelling strategy. The results are benchmarked with other comparative models. The hybrid MEMD-SVD-RF model generates better and reliable forecasts having significant implications for renewable and sustainable energy applications and resources management. • A double decomposition based solar radiation forecasting model incorporating climate drivers. • Multivariate decomposition splits climate drivers into intrinsic mode functions (IMF). • Singular value decomposition reduces dimensionality to pertinent features from a pool of IMFs. • Random Forest (RF) algorithm used to design newly integrative hybrid model. • Hybrid model provides significant energy management implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper analyzes the ongoing transition to sustainable energy in Australia, moving from traditional large-scale plants to distributed renewable generation by studying the time series of coal and gas consumption as well as onshore wind and solar. Even though most of energy generation, especially in the form of electricity is currently being generated from coal and gas, a quantitative assessment of their evolution is necessary to understand whether, and to which extent, renewables are competing in the marketplace with conventional production means. A well-accepted innovation diffusion model is used to capture and interpret the underlying dynamics of the competitive transition in generation. The results show that renewables are exerting a competitive pressure on coal and collaborate with gas towards the transition. The view that gas should play a key role in transition is confirmed by our findings, because it is found to have a competitive role towards coal, while aiding the uptake of renewables. Highlights • Analysis of the ongoing transition to sustainable energy in Australia. • Study to understand whether renewables are competing in the marketplace. • A diffusion model used to capture the dynamics of the competitive transition. • Renewables exert a competitive pressure on coal and cooperate with gas. • Gas plays a competitive role towards coal, and aids the uptake of renewables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Australia is behind in the race of solar power generation. • The usual energy payback period of a solar panel is about 10–15 years. • Large portions of energy are wasted because of the low quality invertor. • A selection procedure should be followed to choose BIPV systems. • Reducing initial capital costs and raising public awareness are necessary. Buildings consume a large quantity of energy. In May 2010, the European Union (EU) reported that around 40% of their energy consumption was related to building sectors, which is similar to the proportion of 39% in the United States. In Australia, buildings count 20% of its total energy consumption. Experts across the globe have been working in the development of new technologies, which not only reduce the building energy consumption but also harness energy from renewable sources. Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) system is one of the most popular techniques towards constructing a net-zero energy building through the utilisation of solar energy. In this review, we focus on the BIPV applications in Australia, where BIPV has not been prevailed as widely as might be expected despite the high solar irradiation in the country. This paper discusses recent advancements in BIPV systems and challenges that Australia is facing in order to adopt this technology. In addition, the current carbon emission issues in Australia are presented to build awareness among people, which will contribute towards adopting this technology. A range of experimental and numerical studies have been reviewed to identify the effectiveness of BIPV on building performances. This study also reports on the sustainability and economic feasibility of BIPV systems in terms of energy payback time and economical payback time, respectively. Based on this review, it is argued that BIPV is technically and economically feasible for Australia and its implementation might be started with solar roof tiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy sources such as wind farms and solar power plants are replacing conventional coal-based synchronous generators (SGs) to achieve net-zero carbon emissions worldwide. SGs play an important role in enhancing system strength in a power system to make it more stable during voltage/frequency disruptions. However, traditional coal-fired SGs are being decommissioned in many parts of the world, owing to stringent environmental regulations and low levelized cost of energy of renewables. Consequently, maintaining system strength in a renewable energy-dominated power system has become a major challenge, and without adequate mitigation techniques, low system strength can potentially cause widespread power outages. This paper provides an overview of system strength and its measurement techniques in a power system with a large number of renewable energy sources (RESs), for example solar and wind farms. The review includes the system strength measurement techniques, mitigation approaches, and future challenges. • A comprehensive review on system strength for Australia. • Integration of power systems with large number of renewable energy sources. • Measurement and mitigation techniques for system strength shortfalls. • Analysis of future challenges and research directions on system strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a viable technique to address food waste (FW) problems by converting FW into sustainable energy. Despite the advantages of the AD process, large-scale AD plants like in Germany and the USA have not been developed in Australia. Therefore, this paper aims to study the technological, economic, and environmental feasibility of sustainable energy production from household FW in Australia. In addition, this paper discusses the different waste to energy (WtE) technologies along with the operational parameters as well as the challenges in developing a biogas plant. The energy and economic potential analysis of the AD process indicates that the processing of 10% FW from Australian states and territories can generate 1.22 GWh to 35.4 GWh electricity which can subsequently earn AUD 0.54 million to AUD 15.7 million revenue per year. The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions analysis indicates that conversion of the 10% of Australian FW has the potential to lower GHG emissions by 639,852 tonnes per annum. Hence, it can be said that FW plays a vital role as a promising source of sustainable energy and is capable of benefiting the country's economy significantly and reducing GHG emissions. • FW is a potential source of sustainable energy. • AD is a useful waste to energy process for producing clean energy. • Conversion of FW into energy can significantly lower GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proponents of low-carbon transformation face an uphill battle to reconfigure incumbent energy systems against powerful interests protecting the status quo. Australia's electricity sector is an example of such a system, wedded to fossil fuels and backed by much of the country's political establishment. This paper addresses the potential for low-carbon transformation in Australia's electricity sector. It explores the complex and uncertain dynamics shaping the sector and outlines how these can be understood through the lens of strategic agency – with an eye for opportunities to drive a shift to renewables. It reviews the dynamics of change and re-stability shaping Australia's electricity sector between 2006 and 2015 and applies a resource-based view of transformative agency to analyse these dynamics. Results show the sector suffers multiple stressors and emphasise disruptive changes ‘in the pipeline’. Critically, many of these transformative dynamics stem from factors outside the influence of the electricity sector and its supporters. While results do not point to a clear trajectory or outcome of transformation, they indicate the uptake of small-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) systems by households and small business will play a defining role in the sector's future configuration. Furthermore, the exploration of transformative dynamics affecting the electricity sector through a resource-based lens shows that many opportunities exist for strategic agents to intervene in support of a disruptive shift to renewables. The paper suggests a range of mechanisms that agents could use to undermine the strength of fossil energy in the electricity sector and encourage a shift to renewables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both developed and developing countries have committed to reduce their emissions through the increased use of renewable energy. This paper aims to compare renewable energy deployment in developed and developing countries represented by Australia and China. The paper firstly argues the validity of comparison of renewable energy deployment in Australia and China. Then, the governance structures in both countries are compared; the paper also compares management mechanisms in terms of funding and incentive support, renewable energy grid-connection and coordination between different levels of governments in both countries. Moreover, the current status of renewable energy development in two countries is summarized. From the study, it can be concluded both countries have set a Renewable Energy Target and promulgated legislation and regulations to enlarge the scale of renewable energy; China shows a stronger commitment to renewable energy than Australia. However, Renewable Energy Certificate mechanism is implemented more effectively in Australia than in China. The paper suggests: augmenting and rebuilding the electricity network and strengthening coordination between different levels of governments for both countries; enhancing manufacturing facilities and incentives for the solar and wind industry for Australia, while developing more-detailed implementation legislation and renewable power quota system for China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Smart Grid (SG) is an emerging concept, which is in a testing phase in many countries. It is a relatively new perception that integrates electricity and communication on power system networks, which enable SG applications, mainly for the use of Renewable Energy Sources (RES). This paper presents a review of the existing studies on SG systems, the use of SG technologies and the modeling techniques for SG available in the literature. Furthermore, the paper focuses on SG features when connected at a distribution grid and its active distribution management capability. It also identifies the current practice as provided in technical standards and potential industry investments that can facilitate a pathway towards SG development in Australia. The paper also has highlighted the possible areas of research that would be required to implement practical SG facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB) is a term, subject to ambiguity, that could be used to describe a building with characteristics such as equal energy generation to usage, significantly reduced energy demands, energy costs equalling zero or net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Despite lacking an authoritative definition of NZEBs, this relatively new emerging concept in Australia provides significant opportunities to reduce GHG emissions, energy usage and operational energy costs for buildings owners. This paper aims to explore the existing NZEB models, assess the progression of NZEB literature, identify key policies encouraging NZEB development and recognise potential areas of NZEB research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy industry is undergoing significant disruption. This research outlines that, whilst challenging, this disruption is also an emerging opportunity for electricity utilities. One such opportunity is leveraging the developments in data analytics and machine learning. As the uptake of renewable energy technologies and complimentary control systems increases, electricity grids will likely transform towards dense microgrids with high penetration of renewable generation sources, rich in network and customer data, and linked through intelligent, wireless communications. Data digitisation and analytics has already impacted numerous industries, and its influence on the energy sector is growing, as computational capabilities increase to manage big data, and as machines develop algorithms to solve the energy challenges of the future. The objective of this paper is to address how far the uptake of renewable technologies can go given the constraints of existing grid infrastructure, and provides a qualitative assessment of how higher levels of renewable energy penetration can be facilitated by incorporating even broader technological advances in the fields of data analytics and machine learning. Western Australia is used as a contextualised case-study, given its abundance and diverse renewable resources (solar, wind, biomass, and wave) and isolated networks, making a high penetration of renewables a feasible target for policy makers over coming decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the least-cost greenhouse gas (GHG) abatement pathway for a coupled energy system. We consider the roles of diverse abatement technologies, such as renewable electricity generation, biomass and carbon capture and storage (CCS), as well as sources of operational flexibility, such as peaking generators, electricity storage, transmission and electrolysis. Scenario and sensitivity analyses are applied to explore plausible pathways to energy system decarbonization. All modelled pathways to a zero-emissions energy system feature an accelerating transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy with diverse technologies playing a role. This includes variable renewable generators (VRG), CCS, and sources of operational flexibility on different timescales. Specifically, synchronous condensers appear to be a cost-effective option to control system frequency, inter-seasonal hydrogen storage in engineered caverns can play a significant and complementary role to that of pumped hydro and battery storage, and technologies that capture and sequester atmospheric carbon, including biomass-to-CCS and direct air capture (DAC), can also play a significant role in the transition to net-zero emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global concerns around climate change and the volatility of conventional fuel prices have prompted researchers and technologists to make significant efforts to identify and exploit alternative energy sources that are cleaner and more sustainable. Wind energy has seen considerable development among these alternative energy sources, mainly due to its abundance and global availability for extraction and the existing knowledge within the aviation and aerospace fields. Many nations, including European countries, already operate offshore wind farms (OWFs) and are progressively carrying out new projects and expanding on other projects. The Australian offshore environment provides unique opportunities for wind energy extraction, particularly along the southern coast of mainland Australia and the regions around Tasmania, where substantially strong winds blow most of the year. A significant challenge to establishing wind farms is the selection of site locations with optimal outputs. This can become a complex decision-making problem if there are numerous options and no information from previous projects. This paper aims to develop a decision-making framework to select the optimal location for installing OWFs while addressing financial, performance-related, and availability-related objectives. This paper adopts a game-theoretical approach to develop a decision-support tool to account for the interdependencies of influencing factors and possible conflicts amongst the parties. The game model is applied to an OWF development case study in the Bass Strait, known for its dominant and strong winds. • A framework to find the optimal location for installing Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs). • Game theory decision-making methodology for offshore renewable energy applications. • Define the influencing factors and conflicts amongst the interested parties. • Apply to OWFs development in Bass Strait, known for its dominant and strong winds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern power systems are experiencing the challenge of high uncertainty with the increasing penetration of renewable energy resources and the electrification of heating systems. In this paradigm shift, understanding electricity users' demand is of utmost value to the retailers, aggregators, and policymakers. However, behind-the-meter (BTM) equipment and appliances at the household level are unknown to the other stakeholders mainly due to privacy concerns and tight regulations. In this paper, we seek to identify residential consumers based on their BTM equipment, mainly rooftop photovoltaic (PV) systems and electric heating, using imported/purchased energy data from utility meters. To solve this problem with an interpretable, fast, secure, and maintainable solution, we propose an integrated method called Interpretable Refined Motifs And binary Classification (IRMAC). The proposed method comprises a novel shape-based pattern extraction technique, called Refined Motif (RM) discovery, and a single-neuron classifier. The first part extracts a sub-pattern from the long time series considering the frequency of occurrences, average dissimilarity, and time dynamics while emphasising specific times with annotated distances. The second part identifies users' types with linear complexity while preserving the transparency of the algorithms. With the real data from Australia and Denmark, the proposed method is tested and verified in identifying PV owners and electrical heating system users. The performance of the IRMAC is studied and compared with various state-of-the-art methods. The proposed method reached an accuracy of 96% in identifying rooftop PV users and 94.4% in identifying electric heating users, which is comparable to the best solution based on deep learning, while the speed of the inference model is a thousand times faster. Last but not least, the proposed method is a transparent algorithm, which can tackle the concerns regarding the agnostic decision-making process when policies prohibit some machine learning methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite considerable mitigation efforts, global emissions from the electricity sector continued to grow in recent years. In Australia, the electricity sector is the largest CO 2 -emitting industry, contributing 35% of the country's total greenhouse gas emissions. The Australian government targets an 80% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 relative to 2010. With a large variety and quantity of renewable energy resources, it is technically feasible and seems indispensable that Australia's electricity sector be largely decarbonised by 2050 in order to achieve this target. In this paper, scenario-based hybrid Life-Cycle Assessment is applied to calculate the economy-wide carbon footprints of seven electricity generation technologies in scenarios with differing renewable electricity penetration. This work is the first to apply a full life-cycle approach to scenario analysis of electricity generation in Australia. The findings are at the higher end of previously reported carbon footprint intensity ranges and above median values. However, even when taking into account indirect emissions along the technologies' life-cycles, the results indicate that the employment of different renewable energy technologies can potentially save a considerable fraction of Australia's greenhouse gas emissions. This makes renewables an essential option for climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Residential or ‘rooftop’ solar PV can play an important role in providing renewable energy, thus offsetting fossil fuel based generation and associated greenhouse gas emissions. In Australia, subsidies are offered to encourage the deployment of residential PV in the form of Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) and Feed-in Tariffs (FiTs). This paper provides a literature review of existing work which assesses renewable energy in Australia, and delves deeper into a residential PV specific analysis of available data across the five criteria of installation, employment, market maturity, FiT settings and environmental outcomes to assess successes, failures and impacts of Australian residential PV policies between 2001 and 2012. This analysis identifies overall success with regard to environmental and deployment goals, and limited success in the goal of renewable energy industry promotion, which is devoid of indigenous manufacturing. In addition, impacts, including the dominance of the FiT as the initial stimulus for rapid PV deployment, cost impacts on electricity bills for various FiT settings, and the dependence of PV employment numbers on the continuation of the FiT are also identified. Finally, inequitable outcomes due to the FiT, such as cross-subsidisation from non-solar to solar households are also detailed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the economic feasibility of SPCC (solar-assisted post-combustion carbon capture) at a coal power plant near Sydney, Townsville and Melbourne for implementation in 2020. A review of Australia's carbon and renewable energy policy is performed first, after which the merits of application of each incentive for SPCC are compared. Incentives such as subsidies, preferential discount rate, carbon tax and RECs (renewable energy certificates) are evaluated. No single incentive on its own, and within reasonable limits, is able to provide a favourable economic performance for power plant based renewable powered CCS (carbon capture and storage). However, once the compounded effect of carbon tax and electricity price increase is taken into account, a carbon price as low as A$ 25/tonne-CO 2 and a REC price as low as A$ 35/MWh e is able to produce a positive net benefit in Townsville, while a slightly higher carbon price and REC price is required for Sydney. Melbourne performs poorest amongst the three locations, where substantially higher incentives would be needed for economic feasibility. The level of incentives required for SPCC to become feasible are found to fall in the range of current Australian policy incentives accessible to renewable energy technologies for stand-alone power generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of oil in road transport contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in addition to rapidly depleting this non-renewable resource. Emissions can be greatly reduced by the total replacement of petroleum-based vehicles with electric vehicles using a combination of hydrogen and battery energy storage technologies. This paper analytically reviews the potential reduction in Australian road transport GHG emissions through the total replacement of petroleum-fueled vehicles with hydrogen and battery electrical vehicles by 2050. If electricity for hydrogen production & storage and battery charging is sourced from the national electricity grid, it is estimated that emissions can be reduced by between 56% and 73% in 2050 compared to the Australian Government’s Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics (BITRE) projections, depending on the current range of government carbon price projections. Emissions can be reduced even further by supplementing grid electricity with standalone renewable electricity dedicated to hydrogen production and storage. It is found that there is more than sufficient renewable energy resources within Australia (particularly solar and wind) to meet the significant increase in the annual electricity generation that would be required to implement this strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaerobic digestion (AD) of biomass has become a common technology used in many European nations and is receiving increased attention in other nations. The chief attraction of AD is it generates renewable energy. Yet it also manages and treats organic waste, recycles key nutrients to soil, and can create local jobs; making AD an attractive technology to governments. In this paper we review the role government policy has played in promoting AD use and driving its growth in five developed nations studied; Australia, Denmark, Germany, the UK and USA. These nations were chosen for review as they provide a breadth of AD use with the number of AD plants in the aforementioned nations totaling 78, 114, 9545, 265, and 1497. This review looks to demonstrate and discuss policy mechanisms introduced by each nation that has helped drive AD use, and identify areas where policy can help overcome enduring challenges that face the AD industry. Focused discussion is given to waste management, climate change and energy security policies, and to financial incentives made available to AD installations. Analysis shows that the impact of performance based incentives targeted at small-medium capacity AD plants, less than 500 kW, have a significant positive correlation with the growth of AD use in the UK and Germany. The relatively new AD industry faces a number of barriers, which are also discussed, but with the help of supportive government policy for the technology, that considers the wide-ranging benefits of AD across government portfolios; investors will be more likely to show interest in the developing AD industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To be sustainable in energy usage in the future, there are two aspects that need to be considered: the energy supply or generation and the consumption side, including the closely linked construction and building industries which consume a large amount of energy. Essential requirements for energy efficiency are to produce less greenhouse gas emissions and to rely more on renewable energy sources for future sustainability. Policies for mitigation of the environment impact are having effects on both the supply and demand. While the former requires more alternate sources in smart grids and improved technologies for carbon capture and storage, the latter involves the reduction of energy wastes and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as prerequisites to green certification within the construction and building sector. Thus, access to sustainable, affordable, and secure energy is one of the major global strategic priorities to maintain and improve public health, sustain economic growth, and mitigate the effects of climate change. Toward this goal, many countries, including Australia, are investing in clean, efficient, reliable energy systems for a prosperous and environmentally sustainable future. Hence, exploring various options to ensure energy security by diversification of energy sources is an important step in meeting the future requirements and delivering clean energy to different industry sectors. This paper discusses options to manage the use of energy sources in the power generation and construction industries. Options for mitigation of environmental impact and for achievement of sustainable energy usage, such as building design with BIM, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Asia-Pacific has experienced prodigious growth in energy use and is by far the world's largest greenhouse-gas emitting region. Australia has played a leading role in meeting the region's energy and resource needs, becoming the world's largest exporter of coal, liquefied natural gas, iron ore, and alumina. Our analysis shows that these exports are tied to sizeable consequential emissions at the point of use or processing, accounting for about 8.6% of the total greenhouse gas emissions of the Asia-Pacific. The paper investigates three pathways by which Australia could instead export zero-carbon energy and products: direct exports of renewable electricity via sub-sea cables, exports of zero-carbon fuels such as green hydrogen, and the export of "green" metals processed from Australian ores using renewable energy. Carrying out robust, high-level calculations we find that Australia has the land and renewable energy resources to become a key exporter of these commodities. Realization of this potential relies on ongoing cost reductions, growing demand-side interest linked to meeting ambitious emission reduction targets in the region, and the development of cross-border frameworks for clean energy trade. If it were to achieve this goal, Australia could make a sizeable contribution to regional decarbonization via renewable-energy based exports. • Consequential emissions from existing key Australian exports are estimated. • The potential for replacement zero-carbon exports from Australia is analyzed. • Land, water, and energy requirements for new zero-carbon exports are calculated. • There is the potential to reduce Asia-Pacific greenhouse gas emissions by about 8.6%. • Around 2% of Australia's land mass would be required for solar and wind farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the cost-effectiveness of subsidies (feed-in tariffs and renewable energy credits) paid for by electricity consumers to support the uptake of roof top photovoltaic (PV) systems by households in Australia. We estimate annual payback periods, and then regress these against the actual uptake of household PV and associated emission reductions, creating a relationship not apparent in other research. Sensitivity analysis reveals that the declining cost of PV panels had most impact on PV uptake followed by feed-in tariffs, renewable energy credits and the increasing cost of household electricity tariffs. Our modelling shows that feed-in tariffs were higher than necessary to achieve the resultant levels of PV uptake and that the low cost of PV panels and comparatively high electricity tariffs are likely to result in a continuing strong uptake of household PV in Australia. Our modelling shows that subsidies peaked in 2011 and 2012, with payback periods of three to four years, having since increased to five to six years. Emission reduction costs are expected to reduce from over AU$200 per t CO 2 e in 2013 to between AU$65 and AU$100 per t CO 2 e in 2020. Household PV reduced Australia’s emissions by 3.7 million t CO 2 e in 2013 (1.7% of Australia’s total emissions) and is expected to reach eight million tonnes (3.7% of Australia’s total emissions) by 2020. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Novel ensemble framework which improves short-term load forecasting accuracy. • Model divides the problem into several subtasks based on peak and off-peak conditions. • Classification and regression models were developed to solve each subtask. • Framework is validated on real-world operational demand across regions in Australia. • Model has a substantially higher accuracy (up to 25.4% in MAE) over other methods. [Display omitted] To keep the balance between electricity demand and supply as well as infrastructure planning, it is important to accurately forecast the electricity demand. This has become a challenging task due to increasing share of renewable energy and prosumers (i.e. consumers who produce electricity) in the electricity grid. This paper develops a cooperative ensemble framework which divides the forecasting problem into several subtasks based on peak and off-peak conditions. Each subtask is then solved using multiple forecasting models that include classification and regression. The developed framework is finally validated on real-world operational demand across the National Electricity Market (NEM) of Australia. The performance is comprehensively compared against various state-of-the-art techniques in the field, which indicates up to 25.4% mean absolute error (MAE) improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Coal plays a key role in China's economy as a dominant primary energy resource. In this paper, we provide probability density forecasts for weekly steam coal prices in China based on daily factors such as renewable energy source, Daqing oil, Japanese natural gas, Australia steam coal prices, coal mining industry index, A-share power sector index, A-share index, coal industry index, and temperature. The empirical results show that the influence of temperature lasts longer than other factors, while the Australia steam coal prices, renewable energy source and A-share index are the three best predictors for steam coal prices. It is also shown that the high-frequency factors are useful to forecast steam coal prices and that considering the nonlinearity of coal prices can improve the forecast accuracy by about 22%. We further provide the probability density forecasts for steam coal prices based on the influence of all the selected factors, the results suggest that our proposed method can provide accurate and satisfying probability density forecasts. Given these results, the policy-makers can make effective strategies which can not only adjust the energy structure but also ensure economic growth. • High-frequency factors are useful to forecast coal prices. • C-MIDAS-X model considers the high-frequency factors and the nonlinearity of coal prices. • The probability density forecasts are satisfying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to analyse whether the Australian commitment to the Paris Agreement in 2016 and national energy policies will have a visible effect in decreasing the historical dependence of the NEM (National Electricity Market) on fossil fuels by 2030 and consequently decreasing the carbon emissions generated. In this paper, we model the 2030 electricity mix in the NEM in Australia. EnergyPlan , which is the modelling tool adopted for this study, is described and a reference model is conceived and calibrated based on the 2018 electricity situation on the NEM. The simulations are implemented considering three different supply scenarios and three potential electricity demands, to evaluate how different variables can influence the NEM electricity mix by 2030. This study concludes that by 2030 wind and solar power (including rooftop-PV systems) will be the major renewable energy contributors in the NEM, as opposed to 2018 where hydropower represented the main renewable energy source. Nonetheless, the electricity system in 2030 will continue to rely on fossil fuels, which will account for more than 50% of the final energy mix in every scenario, depicting that new efforts will still be needed beyond 2030. • We foresee the electricity mix in Australia by 2030. • We study three generation and three demand scenarios. • Fossil fuels will still account for more than 50% of the final electricity mix. • We expect a visible CO2 emissions reduction, due to the bet in RES in recent years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Challenging frequency control issues, such as the reliability and security of the power system, arise when increasing penetration levels of inverter-interfaced generation are imposed. As a result of the displacement of convention generation in favour of renewable energy sources, the reduction of frequency response capabilities can be seen. A promising method of overcoming the aforementioned challenges is to utilise Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS), which provides frequency support by injecting instantaneous power to the grid and back up the conventional generation systems. However, large battery systems increase the cost while inadequate battery capacities result in poor performance. This paper, therefore, proposes an approach for finding the optimum BESS size for an islanded microgrid power system. The determination of the optimum BESS size is based on an existing case study, under which the most severe contingencies of generation loss and load loss have been accounted for, as well as different levels of penetration of renewable energy sources. As a result of using meta-heuristic optimization (Grey Wolf Optimization), the constraint optimization problem has been identified as BESS sizing. Through the use of real-time simulation DIgSILENT PowerFactory software, estimated BESS size can be applied to a standalone microgrid to test the frequency of support capabilities. The simulation has made it apparent that through the selection of the optimum BESS size, the system frequency response is not only mitigated, but improved. • Proposing a novel optimization model for determining the optimal size of the battery devices of standalone microgrids. • Propose an intelligent approach to mitigate the frequency response of standalone microgrids based on hybridization sources. • Combining the advantages of the BESS controller and the meta-heuristic Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) algorithm. • Validate the system performance based on a real case study under different scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the global context, only 6% of Australia's total energy consumption was derived from renewables, while 86.3% of electricity was generated from fossil fuels. However, this trend has been disrupted by the recent decommissioning and closure of a fleet of ageing coal power plants, along with the country's international commitments to reduce fossil fuel emissions. Currently, Australia is at a crucial stage of its transition to renewable energy adoption. With the purpose of providing an updated depiction of renewable energy, related policy and the way ahead in the Australian context, this research paper presents a systematic review of contemporary literature from the perspectives of energy potential, utilisation and policy incentives. The research analysed a total of 118 documents using an interpretivist epistemological lens; emergent findings offer an evidence-based, lucid account of advancements in the renewable energy market. Polynomial regression analysis is also conducted on secondary data obtained from the literature to predict trends in the electricity generated by different sources of renewable energy. The work also identifies several areas that require attention, including: (1) the most recent time-varying feed-in tariffs (TV FiTs) which offer the innate potential to alter consumer attitudes toward power usage at peak times, thereby improving grid security; (2) the increasingly popular integration of waste-to-energy with other sources of renewable energy emerges as a viable complementary solution to meet energy demands; (3) the increasing utilisation of subsidised geothermal energy installations which are set to rise exponentially in the future; and (4) the use of Public Private Partnerships (PPP) for developing renewable energy generation infrastructure and how this investment may facilitate the national transition to renewable energy adoption. This research contributes to the existing body of knowledge by raising awareness of the current state of renewable energy in Australia, along with proposing pragmatic recommendations for overcoming any challenges posed. As a comprehensive reference, this study provides practitioners and policymakers with thorough, reliable and collated information on Australia's current renewable energy position. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The proposed method can solve voltage issues and enable higher PV penetration. • PV imbalance makes traditional methods less effective on overvoltage mitigation. • A joint centralized-decentralized method is developed for unbalanced PV scenarios. • The new approach controls fast PV fluctuations in a coordinated and distributed way. Due to random connection of small-size single-phase rooftop photovoltaic (PV) generators in residential areas, low voltage distribution systems tend to have unbalanced PV integration across phases. In such situations, traditional reactive power compensation methods may cause unintended Voltage-Reactive Power responses across phases due to line coupling, which consequently affects their effectiveness on overvoltage mitigation. Such overvoltage problems significantly hinder the future integration of clean and renewable solar energy resources in power networks. In this paper, the limitations of traditional methods in PV imbalance scenarios are revealed and comprehensively analyzed by a voltage sensitivity method for the first time. On this basis, an innovative joint centralized-decentralized method is developed to overcome the PV imbalance-induced voltage regulation challenge. Specifically, the inverter's reactive power response to PV power variations in different phases is adaptively scheduled in order to avoid adverse effect of inter-phase Voltage-Reactive Power interaction on voltage regulation. The effectiveness of the proposed method is validated by time-series simulations with recorded data and a real-life low voltage distribution system in Australia. With the traditional method (i.e. power factor droop control strategy), 93 minutes' overvoltage can be observed in the case study, which will trigger overvoltage protection and disconnect PV inverters from the grid. While, the proposed method can always control the system voltage within the allowable range, and it consequently avoids PV disconnection. By solving this bottleneck issue, more PV systems can be integrated into distribution networks, which consequently contributes to CO 2 emission reduction in future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]