Search

Excerpted from my book Generally Speaking, this paper introduces "concept‐driven sociology," a special way of theorizing designed to reveal abstract social patterns. As such, it examines the methodological process by which we can "distill" generic patterns from the culturally, historically, and situationally specific contexts in which we encounter them. It thus champions a "generic sociology" that is pronouncedly transcontextual (transcultural, transhistorical, transsituational, and translevel) in its scope. In order to uncover generic, transcontextual social patterns, we need to collect our data in a wide range of social contexts. Such contextual diversity is manifested multi‐culturally, multihistorically, multisituationally, as well as at multiple levels of social aggregation. True to its message, the book illustrates generic social patterns by drawing on numerous examples from diverse cultural contexts and historical periods and a wide range of diverse social domains, as well as by disregarding scale. Emphasizing cross‐contextual commonality, concept‐driven sociology tries to reveal formal "parallels" across seemingly disparate contexts. The paper features the four main types of cross‐contextual analogies concept‐driven sociologists tend to use—cross‐cultural, cross‐historical, cross‐domain, as well as cross‐level—disregarding conventionally noted substantive differences in order to note conventionally disregarded formal equivalences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantifiers frequently figure in works of fiction. But occurrences of quantificational expressions within fictions seem no more inevitably to be associated with real domains than uses of names within fictions seem inevitably to be associated with existing referents. The paper outlines some philosophical puzzles resulting from this apparent lack of associated domains, puzzles that are broadly analogous to more familiar ones raised by the apparently nonreferential nature of many fictional names. The paper argues, in the light of an important disanalogy between quantifiers and names, that the quantificational puzzles are substantive, in that they cannot be resolved merely by appealing to the possibility of empty domains. It then argues that, despite the cited parallels between occurrences of quantifiers and names within fictions, promising treatments of fictional names do not always straightforwardly generalise to provide accounts of the quantificational phenomena: the quantificational puzzles are therefore not only substantive but also distinctive. The paper provides further testament to the depth and interest of the problems involving content that are generated by fiction, by identifying a very wide range of previously neglected cases, while also helping to situate within a broader context the notoriously hard philosophical challenges posed by fictional names. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Novelty and similarity are complex concepts that have numerous applications in various fields, including biology and medicine. Novelty detection is a technique used to determine whether a dataset is different from another dataset considered as a standard. Similarity detection is a technique used to determine whether two datasets belong to the same population. Novelty and similarity are closely related concepts; however, they are not complementary. Novelty is a much more popular one, and there are many publications about it. Similarity is, in fact, a new concept that has not yet been explored in depth. Classical statistics offers a large number of tools suitable for detection of similarity, mostly in the univariate case. At the same time, this topic has been insufficiently studied in the field of machine learning. This paper suggests several principles which are important for this research and also present a method for the detection of both novelty and similarity. The method uses a one‐class classifier, known as Data‐Driven Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (DD‐SIMCA). Three examples illustrate our approach. The first one uses simulated data and demonstrates the performance of DD‐SIMCA for the detection of novelty. The second example uses a real‐world data and studies similarity of two groups of patients who participate in the evaluation of the effectiveness of the treatment of primary angle‐closure glaucoma. The third example comes from medical diagnostics. This is a real‐world publicly available data used for comparison of various classification algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning to spell in English requires the integration of general and specific word knowledge. This paper describes the 'Word Nerds' project, a research–practice partnership consisting of two researchers from a large public university and 17 elementary teachers in seven school districts in the United States. The collaboration was formed to study variation in instructional practice among teachers using the Words Their Way programme and address teacher‐generated questions related to how children learn to spell words. This paper describes how stakeholders worked together to understand (1) what grouping and organisational structures teachers use for spelling instruction, (2) the extent to which elementary students use analogy to spell unknown words that share spelling patterns with known words and (3) the affordances and challenges of a partnership approach to educational research. Data collection took place over one school year. Data sources included teacher focus groups, classroom observations and student formative spelling assessment data (n = 178). Analyses included descriptive statistics, t‐tests and multilevel modelling, nesting spelling items in students in classrooms. Findings indicated that classroom observation scores for grouping, teacher talk, student‐to‐student talk, reflection and student engagement during spelling lessons varied depending on format (whole group, small group or pair/individual). Students showed evidence of spelling by analogy, but this strategy was associated in part with the semantic difficulty of the target words. Instructional practices for spelling vary based on teachers' priorities, and teachers need support to implement and prioritise evidence‐based practices. Conducting research in partnership allowed the researchers to observe and understand variation in implementation of a popular spelling programme and to develop and answer research questions that mattered to teachers; however, it also limited the size, scope and location of the project. Highlights: What is already known about this topic Children can read and spell words by analogising familiar spelling patterns from known to unknown words.Evidence‐based spelling instruction focuses on common orthographic and morphological patterns that help students use analogy to spell and form high‐quality lexical representations in memory.Implementation of evidence‐based spelling instruction is challenging for teachers, and there is little research examining how popular commercial spelling programmes are used in classrooms. What this paper adds Classrooms engaged in small‐group spelling instruction included more teacher talk; classrooms engaged in individual instruction were highly differentiated; and classrooms engaged in whole‐group instruction included more student‐to‐student talk and engagement.Student data showed evidence of spelling by analogy, but students were less likely to spell more semantically challenging words correctly and made more errors in spelling those words, even when orthographic difficulty was held constant.The research–practice partnership allowed researchers to document and explain variability in spelling instruction and address teachers' questions about spelling development. Implications for theory, policy or practice Teachers adapt spelling instruction to address their priorities, and different organisational models prioritise direct instruction, differentiation, standards‐based content, or peer collaboration.The ability to analogise spelling patterns from known to unknown words may depend on linking orthographic knowledge to vocabulary knowledge.Teachers need support and community to implement and iterate best practices for spelling instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the case Paul Horwich makes in his book Wittgenstein's Metaphilosophy against so‐called T‐philosophy—the traditional conception of philosophy as a theoretical enterprise that seeks to analyse concepts, solve problems, and explain phenomena in a unified and systematic way. Different forms of T‐philosophy are identified in the paper, but it is argued that Horwich's multi‐pronged critique has no force against any of them. The paper also assesses, as a case study, Horwich's contention that the problem of our knowledge of mathematical objects can be dissolved on the grounds that the problem is based on a misguided analogy with our knowledge of physical objects. The paper shows that Horwich's contention is mistaken and that the problem can be established without drawing any analogy with our knowledge of physical objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers an interpretation of Aristotle's concepts of dynamis and energeia (commonly translated as potentiality and actuality) and of the thematic progression of Metaphysics IX. I first raise the question of where motion fits in Aristotle's categories and argue that the locus of motion in the system of categories are the categories of doing and suffering, in which case dynamis and energeia in respect of motion can also be understood as the dynamis and energeia of doing and suffering. Next, I argue that the analogy that Aristotle draws in IX.6 is an analogy between the dynamis and energeia of doing and suffering and the dynamis and energeia of substance. Finally, I try to show that it is this analogy between the kinetic and nonkinetic variants of dynamis and energeia—and not the distinction between end‐inclusive and end‐exclusive activities—that provides the key to understanding the structure of Metaphysics IX. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conceptual abstraction and analogy‐making are key abilities underlying humans' abilities to learn, reason, and robustly adapt their knowledge to new domains. Despite a long history of research on constructing artificial intelligence (AI) systems with these abilities, no current AI system is anywhere close to a capability of forming humanlike abstractions or analogies. This paper reviews the advantages and limitations of several approaches toward this goal, including symbolic methods, deep learning, and probabilistic program induction. The paper concludes with several proposals for designing challenge tasks and evaluation measures in order to make quantifiable and generalizable progress in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 'black box' in Stoic axiology refers to the mysterious connection between the input of Stoic deliberation (reasons generated by the value of indifferents) and the output (appropriate actions). In this paper, I peer into the black box by drawing an analogy between Stoic and Kantian axiology. The value and disvalue of indifferents is intrinsic, but conditional. An extrinsic condition on the value of a token indifferent is that one's selection of that indifferent is sanctioned by context‐relative ethical principles. The value of an indifferent that does not meet this condition is normatively silenced, such that it fails to constitute a reason for action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper develops a theory of strategic corporate social responsibility responses, by drawing on the analogy of biological species‐level adaptations of camouflage and courtship found in the natural world. In so doing, we focus on the substantive response and associated strategic motivation to engage in different types of CSR within a mainstreaming environment; and the mechanisms by which it occurs in differing scenarios, framed through a biological interpretative lens. We presents eight strategic approaches to CSR, each defined by a camouflage or courtship approach. Each strategy is considered through the lens of their biological comparators and published case vignettes of CSR strategies within firms. The paper concludes by discussing a future research agenda building on the theoretical framework presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is devoted to studying a notion of Bott integrability for Reeb flows on contact 3‐manifolds. We show, in analogy with work of Fomenko–Zieschang on Hamiltonian flows in dimension 4, that Bott‐integrable Reeb flows exist precisely on graph manifolds. We also show that all S1$S^1$‐invariant contact structures on Seifert manifolds, as well as all contact structures on the 3‐sphere, on the 3‐torus and on S1×S2$S^1\times S^2$, admit Bott‐integrable Reeb flows. Along the way, we establish some general Liouville‐type theorems for Bott‐integrable Reeb flows, and a number of topological constructions (connected sum, open books, Dehn surgery) that may be expected to have wider applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While AI has become more prevalent in our society than ever, many young learners are found holding various naive, erroneous conceptions of AI due to the influence of their technology and media environments. To address this issue, this study seeks to propose a novel pedagogical solution to improve upper‐elementary school students' scientific understanding of AI. Following a theory‐informed design convention, we propose an embodied, analogical and disruptive (EAD) approach which is centred on a human–AI comparison through analogical teaching and embodied interaction. To evaluate the impact of this approach, a matched‐group experimental study with pre‐ and posttest interviews was conducted among 77 Grade 6 elementary students in China. The statistical analysis showed that the experimental group, learning via the EAD approach, significantly outperformed their counterparts receiving direct instruction in terms of student growth in understanding. Qualitative analyses revealed the strengths of the EAD approach in supporting student engagement, abstract thinking and system thinking, and its limitations in cognitive overload and communication issues. Patterns of student learning were identified, including their mental schemas and strategies. The EAD approach, as an evidence‐based, age‐appropriate pedagogical solution, demonstrates the value of embodied cognition and human–AI analogy in AI education in elementary education. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Many young students hold naive, erroneous conceptions about AI.Pedagogical design has long been a critical challenge in teaching AI in K‐12 schools.Human–AI analogies are often used to teach AI, but with obvious pitfalls to be fixed.What this paper adds An embodied, analogical and disruptive (EAD) approach is proposed to improve students' understandings of AI.An experimental study shows statistically significant greater gains in students' understanding with the EAD approach than with the conventional AI‐only direct instruction approach.Qualitative analysis shows the strength of the EAD approach in supporting student engagement, abstract thinking and systems thinking, and its limitations in cognitive overload and communication issues.Implications for practice and/or policy The EAD approach offers a novel pedagogical solution to promote inclusive and quality AI education for young learners.The EAD approach highlights the pedagogical value of embodied cognition and human–AI analogy in AI education.The EAD approach can complement programming and other plugged activities in AI, and more broadly technology and engineering education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The orthodox reading of Peter Strawson's "Freedom and Resentment" tends to hide interesting elements of its underlying argumentative structure. Recognition of a distinction Strawson draws between two classes of reactive attitudes raises a question about how the distinct discussions are related. The orthodox reading seems to assume the only relevant difference between the two classes is one of perspective; however, this reading obscures the analogical nature of Strawson's argument and encourages a conflation of distinct elements within that argument. In this paper, I show that an analogical interpretation of the relationship between the distinct classes of attitudes reveals differences between them that have interesting implications for the secondary literature that has developed around Strawson's famous essay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sprinkled through Wittgenstein's later writings is an analogy designed to appeal to his interlocutors: experiences of meaning are like dreams. But Wittgenstein gives the analogy a twist. He agrees with his interlocutor that the meaning‐blind man's talk might be said to be always dreamless. In contrast with his interlocutor, however, he holds that our own talk is ordinarily dreamless. To see why this is, we must understand that the use of the word "dream" contains, or encourages, an error. This paper examines that error and how understanding it helps us understand Wittgenstein's thoughts about meaning, experiences of meaning, and meaning‐blindness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on Goldman 2008 and 2009, which argue that objective values would be strange in coming in degrees but in no determinate number of degrees, this paper argues that related properties having to do with degrees of value make a further case against objective values. The properties of giving rise to intransitive orderings and being essentially comparative are explained by Larry Temkin in Rethinking the Good. He shows that "better than" is intransitively ordered. Many subjective states are too. But similar arguments for the intransitive orderings of intrinsic objective properties fail. Furthermore, subjective properties and states can change without these changes being explained by changes in their objects. This is similar to the essentially comparative nature of goodness. Given the analogies to subjective states and lack of analogies to objective properties that the present article points out, it argues that we should infer, as Temkin does not, that values are subjective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is a preliminary exploration of the connections between the statistical style of reasoning and the research practices of statistical mechanics in the early period of the long quantum revolution. It suggests that before 1925 the instantiations of the statistical style in physics went through two phases. The first phase consisted of the formulation of the Maxwell‐Boltzmann statistics on the basis of the population‐gas analogy. The second phase was characterized by the generalization of the Maxwell‐Boltzmann statistics through analogies between ideal gas molecules and other microphysical entities, analogies that shaped and were shaped by the rise of quantum theory. Einstein's invention of the Bose‐Einstein statistics started a third phase and created the conditions of possibility for a new classification of microphysical entities according to their different statistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents an extension of the kind of hinge epistemology proposed in Extended Rationality. A Hinge Epistemology (Coliva 2015) to the case of testimonial justification. This extension stems naturally from a reinterpretation of the classic dispute between reductionists and anti‐reductionists with respect to testimonial justification. The interesting and novel aspect of that reinterpretation is that it brings to light the deep analogy between that classic dispute and the contemporary debate between so‐called "liberals" and "conservatives" with respect to the structure of perceptual justification. The paper first presents the reinterpretation; it subsequently proposes the extension of hinge epistemology to the case of testimonial justification; it then turns to a detailed discussion of the exact "hinges" testimonial justification is taken to depend on, and closes by considering some possible objections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bare‐difference methodology is considered to be a powerful tool in ethical reasoning. The underlying idea is that we can identify the intrinsic evaluative significance of some feature by constructing contrast cases or bare‐difference cases, i.e., two cases that hold everything constant but for the feature of interest. While this popular methodology has been challenged by prominent philosophers such as Kagan, Thomson, and Kamm, it is intuitively appealing because, as Perrett identifies, the methodology appears to share the same logical structure as a fruitful scientific procedure. In this paper, I argue that examining this 'scientific analogy' is crucial to understanding both the limitations and the prospects for ethical bare‐difference reasoning. I expand upon Perrett's discussion of the scientific analogy and examine another relevant similarity. I then highlight two relevant dissimilarities between ethical bare‐difference reasoning and its scientific analogue. Though these differences threaten to undermine the analogy, I show how the analogy might be mended to better bring the ethical methodology in line with its scientific counterpart and avoid challenges to ethical bare‐difference methodology raised by philosophers in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a new method to stylize 3D geometry. The key observation is that the surface normal is an effective instrument to capture different geometric styles. Centered around this observation, we cast stylization as a shape analogy problem, where the analogy relationship is defined on the surface normal. This formulation can deform a 3D shape into different styles within a single framework. One can plug‐and‐play different target styles by providing an exemplar shape or an energy‐based style description (e.g., developable surfaces). Our surface stylization methodology enables Normal Captures as a geometric counterpart to material captures (MatCaps) used in rendering, and the prototypical concept of Spherical Shape Analogies as a geometric counterpart to image analogies in image processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computational modeling of sketch understanding is interesting both scientifically and for creating systems that interact with people more naturally. Scientifically, understanding sketches requires modeling aspects of visual processing, spatial representations, and conceptual knowledge in an integrated way. Software that can understand sketches is starting to be used in classrooms, and it could have a potentially revolutionary impact as the models and technologies become more advanced. This paper looks at one such effort, Sketch Worksheets, which have been used in multiple classroom experiments already, with students ranging from elementary school to college. Sketch Worksheets are a software equivalent of pencil and paper worksheets commonly found in classrooms, but they provide on-the-spot feedback based on what students draw. They are built on the CogSketch platform, which provides qualitative visual and spatial representations and analogical processing based on computational models of human cognition. This paper explores three issues. First, we examine how research from cognitive science and artificial intelligence, combined with the constraints of creating new kinds of educational software, led to the representations and processing in CogSketch. Second, we examine how these capabilities have been used in Sketch Worksheets, drawing upon experiments with fifth-grade students in biology and college students in engineering design and in geoscience. Finally, we examine some open issues in sketch understanding that need to be addressed to better model high-level aspects of vision, and for sketch understanding systems to reach their full potential for supporting education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Nonlinear time history analysis (NTHA) is widely considered to be the most accurate and robust method of seismic analysis and, when performed with force analogy method (FAM), can result in significant reduction in computational time, as compared to the conventional displacement‐based finite element (FE) solution technique. Taking this advantage of efficient FAM, this paper investigates the effects of location (along building height) and intensity (150–225%) of single‐floor mass irregularity on seismic response of mid‐rise moment‐resisting steel frames. Three building heights (6, 8, and 10 storeys) have been considered, and the analysis results are presented in the form of floor displacements, storey drift ratio, and plastic energy dissipation. Based on the analysis, it has been observed that critical location (for the maximum seismic response) of mass‐irregular floor corresponds to the level that exhibited the maximum seismic response (i.e., storey drift ratio) in the reference mass‐regular frame. Further, criticality of the irregular frame to seismic excitation has been found to decrease when mass‐irregular floor moves towards the top of the building. The criticality of the irregular frame has been found to increase with the increase in mass‐irregular intensity. Collapse of the irregular frame has been seen to initial first near the storey level where mass‐irregular floor is located. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The task of unsupervised image‐to‐image translation has seen substantial advancements in recent years through the use of deep neural networks. Typically, the proposed solutions learn the characterizing distribution of two large, unpaired collections of images, and are able to alter the appearance of a given image, while keeping its geometry intact. In this paper, we explore the capabilities of neural networks to understand image structure given only a single pair of images, A and B. We seek to generate images that are structurally aligned: that is, to generate an image that keeps the appearance and style of B, but has a structural arrangement that corresponds to A. The key idea is to map between image patches at different scales. This enables controlling the granularity at which analogies are produced, which determines the conceptual distinction between style and content. In addition to structural alignment, our method can be used to generate high quality imagery in other conditional generation tasks utilizing images A and B only: guided image synthesis, style and texture transfer, text translation as well as video translation. Our code and additional results are available in https://github.com/rmokady/structural-analogy/ [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I argue that genuine ethical deliberation, and hence ethical agency, is incompatible in principle with the possession of determinate practical prescriptions concerning how best to act in a concrete ethical situation. I make this argument principally by way of an analogy between gameplay and ethical deliberation. I argue that trivially solved games of perfect information (the example I use is tic‐tac‐toe) are, or become, in some sense unplayable for the individual for whom the game is trivially solved. The reason for this, I suggest, is that there ceases to be space within the game for the distinction between that individual being a better and being a worse player of the game. I then use this example as an occasion to reflect on the kind of epistemic indeterminacy that appears to be a condition of genuine ethical deliberation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that grammatical constructions, specifically argument structure constructions that determine the 'who did what to whom' part of sentence meaning and how this meaning is expressed syntactically, can be considered a kind of relational category. That is, grammatical constructions are represented as the abstraction of the syntactic and semantic relations of the exemplar utterances that are expressed in that construction, and it enables the generation of novel exemplars. To support this argument, I review evidence that there are parallel behavioral patterns between how children learn relational categories generally and how they learn grammatical constructions specifically. Then, I discuss computational simulations of how grammatical constructions are abstracted from exemplar sentences using a domain-general relational cognitive architecture. Last, I review evidence from adult language processing that shows parallel behavioral patterns with expert behavior from other cognitive domains. After reviewing the evidence, I consider how to integrate this account with other theories of language development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many of the greatest challenges in society have emerged as a result of humans acting within complex systems without fully understanding how they work. To address this problem, scholars from diverse fields have appealed to systems thinking. To date, a psychological perspective has been conspicuously absent from scholarship on this topic-a gap that the present paper seeks to fill by situating an individual difference measure of systems thinking in relation to well-studied constructs (e.g. holistic and relational thinking) and decision-making tasks in the psychological literature. Results indicate that the measure of systems thinking captures peoples' tendency to represent and reason about complex systems. The paper helps to validate a novel measure of an individual's tendency to engage in systems thinking and to provide a conceptual foundation for the thinking about the psychological underpinning of a systems thinking mindset. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many philosophers have been concerned with the nature of thick normative concepts. In this paper, I try to motivate a different project: understanding the nature of thick normative properties and facts. I propose a ground‐theoretic approach to this project. I then argue that some of the simplest and most initially plausible ways of understanding thick facts fail and that we are forced to accept some initially implausible views. I try to show how these views are not so implausible after all. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Lithium‐ion batteries generate considerable amounts of heat under the condition of charging‐discharging cycles. This paper presents quantitative measurements and simulations of heat release. A thermal condition monitoring system was built to obtain the temperature of a lithium‐ion battery under electrical heating conditions. The results have been validated using two independent simulation methods and show that the heat generated by the battery increases with the decrease of the discharge resistance. In addition, although the total amounts of heat release are larger under lower discharge resistance, the rate of heat release is relatively small. Two methods were reported namely analogy method and data‐fitting in order to determine the heat generated by the lithium‐ion battery. The results are crucial findings for risk assessment and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Beton- Und Stahlbetonbau is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Cupcake Mohs: A simple analogy to differentiate Mohs micrographic surgery and "bread-loaf" processing While the cupcake method is advantageous in "physical" visualization and allows comparison to the bread-loaf method, Mohs surgeons should use the explanation that most fits their comfort and patients. Dear Editor, Patient education prior to Mohs micrographic surgery (MMS) is essential to clarify its benefits and risks and decrease patients' anxiety.1 The technique of MMS may be difficult to conceptualize and, therefore, Mohs surgeons need effective educational methods for patients, often needing the aid of a visual cue. [Extracted from the article]

Temporal ersatzism is the view that past entities exist, but are not concrete. The view is analogous to modal ersatzism, according to which merely possible worlds exist, but are not concrete. The goal of this paper is to give the reader a sense of the scope of available temporal ersatzist views, the ways in which the analogy with modal ersatzism may be helpful in characterizing and defending those views, and the sorts of considerations that are relevant when evaluating particular versions of temporal ersatzism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analogy and similarity are central phenomena in human cognition, involved in processes ranging from visual perception to conceptual change. To capture this centrality requires that a model of comparison must be able to integrate with other processes and handle the size and complexity of the representations required by the tasks being modeled. This paper describes extensions to Structure-Mapping Engine ( SME) since its inception in 1986 that have increased its scope of operation. We first review the basic SME algorithm, describe psychological evidence for SME as a process model, and summarize its role in simulating similarity-based retrieval and generalization. Then we describe five techniques now incorporated into the SME that have enabled it to tackle large-scale modeling tasks: (a) Greedy merging rapidly constructs one or more best interpretations of a match in polynomial time: O( n2log( n)); (b) Incremental operation enables mappings to be extended as new information is retrieved or derived about the base or target, to model situations where information in a task is updated over time; (c) Ubiquitous predicates model the varying degrees to which items may suggest alignment; (d) Structural evaluation of analogical inferences models aspects of plausibility judgments; (e) Match filters enable large-scale task models to communicate constraints to SME to influence the mapping process. We illustrate via examples from published studies how these enable it to capture a broader range of psychological phenomena than before. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A central question in human development is how young children gain knowledge so fast. We propose that analogical generalization drives much of this early learning and allows children to generate new abstractions from experience. In this paper, we review evidence for analogical generalization in both children and adults. We discuss how analogical processes interact with the child's changing knowledge base to predict the course of learning, from conservative to domain-general understanding. This line of research leads to challenges to existing assumptions about learning. It shows that (a) it is not enough to consider the distribution of examples given to learners; one must consider the processes learners are applying; (b) contrary to the general assumption, maximizing variability is not always the best route for maximizing generalization and transfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Works on regional resilience have at times borrowed from the engineering and ecological framing of system resilience. In ecological contexts, system resilience is rooted in network structure and its characteristics. Here, we empirically investigate the relationship between regional economic resilience and regional trophic characteristics across regional and national boundaries. We consider 249 NUTS2 regions across 24 countries during the 2000–2010 period. We observe strong links between regional resilience and trophic metrics borrowed from the ecological literature. Our results further highlight regional trophic characteristics as a spatially heterogeneous intermediary for feedback effects between economic structure and output of regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the core tenets of cognitive metaphor theory is the claim that metaphors ground abstract knowledge in concrete, first-hand experience. In this paper, I argue that this grounding hypothesis contains some problematic conceptual ambiguities and, under many reasonable interpretations, empirical difficulties. I present evidence that there are foundational obstacles to defining a coherent and cognitively valid concept of 'metaphor' and 'concrete meaning,' and some general problems with singling out certain domains of experience as more immediate than others. I conclude from these considerations that whatever the facts are about the comprehension of individual metaphors, the available evidence is incompatible with the notion of an underlying conceptual structure organized according to the immediacy of experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ionic polymers have attracted considerable attention due to their interesting sensing and actuating behavior which make them a proper choice for use in a wide range of applications including biomimetic robots and biomedical devices. The complicated electro-chemo-mechanical dynamics of ionic polymer actuators is a drawback for their applications in functional devices. Therefore, establishing a mathematical model which could effectively predict the actuators' dynamic behavior is of great interest. In this paper, a mathematical model, named equivalent dynamic thermoviscoelastic (EDT) model, based on thermal analogy and beam theory is proposed for dynamic analysis of bending-type ionic polymer actuators. Then, the developed model is extended for analyzing the performance of the actuator in finite element software. The finite element analysis of the actuator enables consideration of material and geometric nonlinearities and facilitates modeling of functional devices based on the ionic polymer actuators. The proposed modeling approach is validated using experimental data. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The abilities to form concepts and abstractions, and to make analogies, are key to human intelligence, but AI systems have a long way to go before they can match the abilities of humans in these areas. To develop machines that can abstract and analogize, researchers typically focus on idealized problem domains that are meant to capture the essence of human abstraction abilities without having to deal with the complexity of real‐world situations. This commentary describes why solving problems in these domains remains difficult for AI systems, and discusses how AI researches can make progress on imbuing machines with these essential abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The humble loop shrinking property played a central role in the inception of modern topology but it has been eclipsed by more abstract algebraic formalisms. This is particularly true in the context of detecting relevant non‐contractible loops on surfaces where elaborate homological and/or graph theoretical constructs are favored in algorithmic solutions. In this work, we devise a variational analogy to the loop shrinking property and show that it yields a simple, intuitive, yet powerful solution allowing a streamlined treatment of the problem of handle and tunnel loop detection. Our formalization tracks the evolution of a diffusion front randomly initiated on a single location on the surface. Capitalizing on a diffuse interface representation combined with a set of rules for concurrent front interactions, we develop a dynamic data structure for tracking the evolution on the surface encoded as a sparse matrix which serves for performing both diffusion numerics and loop detection and acts as the workhorse of our fully parallel implementation. The substantiated results suggest our approach outperforms state of the art and robustly copes with highly detailed geometric models. As a byproduct, our approach can be used to construct Reeb graphs by diffusion thus avoiding commonly encountered issues when using Morse functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As it outlines a Christian topography of the visual, this article argues that the gaze cultivated by attention to art and the gaze of mercy bear important affinities, even if particular artworks exhibit tensions with mercy. Drawing on Augustine, Dionysius and Gregory of Nyssa, we argue that in this topography, the visual registers in multiple depths, which we explore through four distinct moments: seeing, seeing the excess, seeing the claim and seeing the divine. By analyzing the gaze of art and the gaze of mercy together with reference to artworks created during and about El Salvador's civil war (1980–92) – the homilies of Óscar Romero, the poetry of Carolyn Forché and the visual art of Fernando Llort – we show that the gaze of art echoes and can prepare for the gaze of mercy, particularly in the first three moments, for which there are direct analogies between art and mercy's gazes. There is no such direct analogy in the fourth moment of seeing the divine, yet even here there is a faint foreshadowing that connects art to mercy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why do parasites exhibit a wide dynamical range within their hosts? For instance, why does infecting dose either lead to infection or immune clearance? Why do some parasites exhibit boom‐bust, oscillatory dynamics? What maintains parasite diversity, that is coinfection v single infection due to exclusion or priority effects? For insights on parasite dose, dynamics and diversity governing within‐host infection, we turn to niche models. An omnivory food web model (IGP) blueprints one parasite competing with immune cells for host energy (PIE). Similarly, a competition model (keystone predation, KP) mirrors a new coinfection model (2PIE). We then drew analogies between models using feedback loops. The following three points arise: first, like in IGP, parasites oscillate when longer loops through parasites, immune cells and resource regulate parasite growth. Shorter, self‐limitation loops (involving resources and enemies) stabilise those oscillations. Second, IGP can produce priority effects that resemble immune clearance. But, despite comparable loop structure, PIE cannot due to constraints imposed by production of immune cells. Third, despite somewhat different loop structure, KP and 2PIE share apparent and resource competition mechanisms that produce coexistence (coinfection) or priority effects of prey or parasites. Together, this mechanistic niche framework for within‐host dynamics offers new perspective to improve individual health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analogy‐based estimation is one of the most widely used techniques for effort prediction in software engineering. However, existing analogy‐based techniques suffer from an inability to correctly handle nonquantitative data. To deal with this limitation, a new technique called 2FA‐kprototypes was proposed and evaluated. 2FA‐kprototypes is based on the use of the fuzzy k‐prototypes clustering technique. Although fuzzy k‐prototypes algorithms are well known for their efficiency in clustering numerical and categorical data, they are sensitive to the selection of initial cluster centers. In this paper, the impact of cluster center initialization on improving the prediction accuracy of 2FA‐kprototypes was analyzed and discussed using two cluster initialization techniques: centrality‐based initialization and density‐based initialization. The performance of 2FA‐kprototypes using these two initialization techniques was evaluated and compared with that of 2FA‐kprototypes using random initialization over four datasets: ISBSG, COCOMO81, USP05‐FT, and USP05‐RQ. The results showed an improvement in the performance of 2FA‐kprototypes in terms of estimation accuracy when the all‐in method is used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: In this paper, the accuracy of the force analogy method (FAM) for nonlinear static (pushover) analysis is investigated. Hence, after explanation of the concept of FAM by a new approach, 12 2D steel special moment resisting frames with different configurations were derived from two different 3D archetypes and modeled using four various methods of capturing nonlinearity including SAP2000 super elements, OpenSees force‐based and displacement‐based fiber method, and FAM. In addition, a MATLAB code was developed for modeling and analyzing the frames by FAM. The accuracy of FAM in predictions of pushover curves, base shear forces, and plastic rotation of the critical hinges was investigated. The results indicated that in general, the predictions obtained using the FAM had a good agreement and compatibility with those from other methods of analysis currently used in practice for seismic performance assessment of structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starting with the hypothesis that analogical reasoning consists of a search of semantic space, we used eye‐tracking to study the time course of information integration in adults in various formats of analogies. The two main questions we asked were whether adults would follow the same search strategies for different types of analogical problems and levels of complexity and how they would adapt their search to the difficulty of the task. We compared these results to predictions from the literature. Machine learning techniques, in particular support vector machines (SVMs), processed the data to find out which sets of transitions best predicted the output of a trial (error or correct) or the type of analogy (simple or complex). Results revealed common search patterns, but with local adaptations to the specifics of each type of problem, both in terms of looking‐time durations and the number and types of saccades. In general, participants organized their search around source‐domain relations that they generalized to the target domain. However, somewhat surprisingly, over the course of the entire trial, their search included, not only semantically related distractors, but also unrelated distractors, depending on the difficulty of the trial. An SVM analysis revealed which types of transitions are able to discriminate between analogy tasks. We discuss these results in light of existing models of analogical reasoning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to a widely held view, epistemic reasons are normative reasons for belief – much like prudential or moral reasons are normative reasons for action. In recent years, however, an increasing number of authors have questioned the normativity of epistemic reasons. In this article, I discuss an important challenge for anti‐normativism about epistemic reasons and present a series of arguments in support of normativism. The challenge for anti‐normativism is to say what kind of reasons epistemic reasons are if they are not normative reasons. I discuss various answers to this challenge and find them all wanting. The arguments for normativism each stress a certain analogy between epistemic reasons and normative reasons for action. Just like normative reasons for action, epistemic reasons provide partial justification; they provide premises for correct reasoning; they constitute good bases for the responses they are reasons for; and they are reasons for which agents can show these responses without committing a mistake. In each case, I argue that the relevant condition is plausibly sufficient for the normativity of a reason, and that normativism is in any case in a much better position to explain the analogy than anti‐normativism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. Over the next three days, President George H.W. Bush, his advisors, and world leaders would debate and determine the United States' goals and objectives. These decisions would compel the country's trajectory for the next several months. The process regarding the determination to reverse Iraqi aggression, if necessary with force, provides a compelling case study regarding the use of historical analogies in presidential decision making. Using original archival research, this in‐depth history reveals that historical analogies played a key role in shaping policy on the eve of the Iraq War. This article provides the most complete history of the use of analogies in the initial response to the Gulf crisis to date, as well as valuable insight into the Gulf War, President H.W. Bush, and the process of presidential decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we consider entanglement entropies in two-dimensional conformal field theories in the presence of topological interfaces. Tracing over one side of the interface, the leading term of the entropy remains unchanged. The interface however adds a subleading contribution, which can be interpreted as a relative (Kullback-Leibler) entropy with respect to the situation with no defect inserted. Reinterpreting boundaries as topological interfaces of a chiral half of the full theory, we rederive the left/right entanglement entropy in analogy with the interface case. We discuss WZW models and toroidal bosonic theories as examples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We argue that pretense can be viewed as analogical projection: a structural comparison between the pretend scenario and its real‐world counterpart that leads to inferences about the pretend scenario. For example, in pretending to make a phone call with a banana, a number pad might be projected on the banana's surface. We model two empirical studies of early childhood pretense, and show how successful pretense requires making and accepting such inferences, while failed pretense can be traced to failure of such projection. Other models of pretense, both theoretical and computational, and their relationships to our model, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme precipitation in the Northern French Alps are mainly associated with large‐scale circulations (LSCs) bringing moist air from the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea—two atmospheric influences that are very frequent in the climatology. In this work, we investigate what characterizes the Atlantic/Mediterranean circulations driving extreme precipitation in the Northern French Alps in comparison to 'random' Atlantic/Mediterranean circulations. We focus on extreme 3‐day precipitation over two medium size neighbouring catchments from 1950 to 2017. Atlantic and Mediterranean circulations are identified using an existing weather pattern classification established for Southern France. Every single LSC is characterized using three atmospheric descriptors based on analogy in geopotential shapes at 500 hPa over Western Europe that were introduced in previous works. They are (a) the celerity, characterizing the stationary nature of a geopotential shape, and (b) the singularity and relative singularity, characterizing the resemblance of a geopotential shape to its analogs, in other words the way this geopotential shape is closely reproduced in the climatology. We add to these analogy‐based descriptors a new (non‐analogy) descriptor accounting for the strength of the low and high‐pressure systems. We show that Atlantic/Mediterranean circulations driving extreme 3‐day precipitation in the Northern French Alps are the Atlantic/Mediterranean circulations featuring the strongest centres of action as well as the most stationary and the most reproducible geopotential shapes—characteristics that are rare for both atmospheric influences. In the Atlantic case, these characteristics appear to be even more pronounced and rare with regard to the whole climatology, pointing LSC as an important driver of extreme precipitation. In the Mediterranean case, these characteristics appear to be more random with regard to the whole climatology, pointing a more balanced contribution between specific LSC and humidity in driving extreme precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reaction rate concepts in heterogeneous catalysis are based on well‐defined and usually well‐quantified active sites. Such an active site is stable over time and its main features are typically constant. In heterogeneous photocatalysis, the active site is of different nature. Its existence depends on the instantaneous availability of photons and the variable ability of the photocatalyst to use them. In fact, a realistic expression of the active site that at least in the main feature – stability over time – resembles the classical heterogeneous catalytic concept is missing. Here, the concept of a dynamic active site of the heterogeneous oxidation photocatalyst that is (in a dynamic sense) time stable is elaborated and carefully discussed. The novelty of this approach should be seen in the straightforward applicability of standard kinetic models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a critical inconsistency in the literature on analogical retrieval. On the one hand, a vast set of laboratory studies has found that people often fail to retrieve past experiences that share deep relational commonalities, even when they would be useful for reasoning about a current problem. On the other hand, historical studies and naturalistic research show clear evidence of remindings based on deep relational commonalities. Here, we examine a possible explanation for this inconsistency—namely, that remindings based on relational principles increase as a function of expertise. To test this claim, we devised a simple analogy‐generation task that can be administered across a wide range of expertise. We presented common events as the bases from which to generate analogies. Although the events themselves were unrelated to geoscience, we found that when the event was explainable in terms of a causal principle that is prominent in geoscience, expert geoscientists were likely to spontaneously produce analogies from geoscience that relied on the same principle. Further, for these examples, prompts to produce causal analogies increased their frequency among nonscientists and scientists from another domain, but not among expert geoscientists (whose spontaneous causal retrieval levels were already high). In contrast, when the example was best explained by a principle outside of geoscience, all groups required prompting to produce substantial numbers of analogies based on causal principles. Overall, this pattern suggests that the spontaneous use of causal principles is characteristic of experts. We suggest that expert scientists adopt habitual patterns of encoding according to the key relational principles in their domain, and that this contributes to their propensity to spontaneously retrieve relational matches. We discuss implications for the nature of expertise and for science instruction and assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study employs a numerical approach to investigate noise mechanisms in tandem cylinders. The tandem cylinder configuration is an excellent model for aircraft landing gear. The study is therefore primarily motivated by the need to understand the aircraft landing gear as a primary contributor to airframe noise during approach and landing. Fluctuations in the flow properties induced by turbulent flow around the tandem cylinders are computed and analyzed. A hybrid improved delayed detached eddy simulation turbulence model is employed to compute the boundary layer flow as well as to compute the fluctuations in the flow properties. The numerical methodologies for the turbulent flow computations are implemented on the OpenFOAM software platform. The study also considers the impact of neglecting the volume sources and employs two modified versions of Curle's and Ffowcs‐Williams and Hawkings analogies. The results are in good agreement with published numerical and experimental data in the existing literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analogy is a powerful tool for fostering conceptual understanding and transfer in STEM and other fields. Well‐constructed analogical comparisons focus attention on the causal‐relational structure of STEM concepts, and provide a powerful capability to draw inferences based on a well‐understood source domain that can be applied to a novel target domain. However, analogy must be applied with consideration to students' prior knowledge and cognitive resources. We briefly review theoretical and empirical support for incorporating analogy into education, and recommend five general principles to guide its application so as to maximize the potential benefits. For analogies to be effective, instructors should use well‐understood source analogs and explain correspondences fully; use visuospatial and verbal supports to emphasize shared structure among analogs; discuss the alignment between semantic and formal representations; reduce extraneous cognitive load imposed by analogical comparison; and encourage generation of inferences when students have some proficiency with the material. These principles can be applied flexibly to topics in a wide variety of domains. Teaching relational concepts in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) poses persistent challenges for educators. We consolidate theoretical perspectives and empirical findings from cognitive science to suggest five principles that can guide efforts to use analogy to improve educational outcomes for students with varying backgrounds and varying cognitive abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]