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This paper shifts the focus from male paperless migrants to the women who stay in their country of origin. My analysis of the discrepancy between borderless economics and the bordered movement of people explores the representation of the women left behind in Ayman Zohry's novella 'The Mediterranean Sea', which describes irregular migration from Egypt to Italy. This paper investigates the intersection between the forces of patriarchy and globalisation in the lives of the women who are left in the sending countries. The article starts by shedding light on the writer, who is an expert in immigration studies. The second section of this essay focuses on the wives' struggle against the glocal masculine and geopolitical dictates. The third part of the paper analyses the juncture of gender and global capital in the lives of the mothers left behind. My investigation of the hardships endured by migrants' wives and mothers demonstrates that immigration torments those women who stay in the homeland as much as it afflicts the spouses who travel to 'Hopeland' (Obi, Cyril. 2007. "From Homeland to Hopeland? Economic Globalization and Ogoni Migration in the 1990s." In The Cultures of Economic Migration: International Perspectives, edited by Suman Gupta, and Tope Omonyi, 115. Burlington, VT: Ashgate). My main argument is that the Egyptian women left behind have to strive against both the contradictions induced by globalisation and the subordination generated by male domination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a comprehensive assessment of the effect of different trade barriers (tariffs, non-tariff measures and services restrictions) on wage disparities in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. We look at wage disparities from three dimensions: industry premia, gender-based and skill-based disparities. We use three Labor Market Surveys for Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia to directly assess the effect of trade policy on wage disparities using the human capital model. To which different trade barriers are added. Our results suggest that, in general, the effect of services restrictions and non-tariff measures is much stronger than that of tariffs on wage premium. When we look at different segments, we found that females are more affected by non-tariff measures than their male counterparts. At the skill level, given the abundancy of blue collars in the MENA region, production workers are less affected by both non-tariff measures and by services restrictions than non-production workers but more affected by tariffs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether females have different perceptions of diversity management and workplace happiness compared to their male colleagues. Furthermore, the paper explores whether diversity management perceptions mediate the relationship between workplace happiness and organisational citizenship behaviour. Design/methodology/approach: A total of 260 questionnaires from a number of public hospitals in Egypt were analysed using both t-test and Structural Equation Modelling. Findings: We found that female physicians perceive diversity management policies/protocols more positively than their male colleagues. Moreover, gender has no or little effect on physicians' perceptions of workplace happiness. We also found that workplace happiness positively affects physicians' organisational citizenship behaviour, and finally, diversity management practices can mediate the relationship between workplace happiness and physicians' organisational citizenship behaviour. Practical implications: We believe that managers can raise the feeling of workplace happiness among their staff if they maintain some personal relationships with physicians, care about the physicians' work/life balance, promote after work gatherings, initiate coffee time talks, encourage open communication practices and more. Originality/value: The paper is based on the argument that although employees might be happy in the workplace through (engagement, job satisfaction, affective commitment), their happiness, however,will unlikely be reflected into a positive organisational citizenship behaviour towards their organisation, except (social exchange theory) they feel or perceive (equity theory) the overall practices of diversity management in that organisation positively. Thus, studying the mediating effect of perceptions towards diversity management is mainly our contribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the differences in employment probabilities and their changes over time for the different tranches of Egyptian society. For this, I simulate probabilities for four labour market states (inactivity or unemployment; government sector; private sector and, self-employment and unpaid work) separately by marital status and level of household wealth. Then, I follow these probabilities over time using the three rounds of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Surveys of 1998, 2006 and 2012. The findings of this research, and unlike what the previous literature established, confirm that the gender gap in employment Egypt differs according to the economic and the social circumstances. For instance, if both a man and a woman come from 'relatively good' economic and social circumstances, they showed relatively equal employment chances. The findings of this research show that the gender gap in employment aggravates with the deterioration of the individual's economic and social characteristics. For instance, education and income in addition to a number of other individual and household characteristics would allow women to attain a better position of gender equality in employment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the logic behind farmers' choice of adaptive water management practice is important to appreciate the opportunities and challenges they face and to scale targeted solutions effectively. This paper aims to understand the main drivers of change that induce adaptation in water management. The Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) framework that juxtaposed the within and across micro-, meso-, and macro-level drivers was applied to a case study of the Nile Delta to identify key drivers of change and farmers' adaptive responses. The framework helped in contextualizing key gender, temporal, and spatial dimensions of the drivers, and to identify their individual and interactive effects on farmers' adaptation decisions. We find that farmers' gender-differential water management choices are influenced not only by the individual changes in the three spheres of influence but also their interactions. The study highlights the benefits of using MLP to identify challenges that should often be tackled simultaneously to improve agricultural water delivery and use. We demonstrated that adaptation choices in water management are more sustainable when farmers' decisions are supported by enabling environments, including local regulations, norms, national institutional frameworks, and policies. They are also informed by and responsive to global trends such as climate change and markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High unemployment among college graduates has been a big concern in Egypt for many years now. Mismatch in technical competencies and lack of job-oriented skills and inequity in education and career by gender pose a major constraint for Egyptian youth to find employment. Information about whether the gender of the mentor has any effect on the quality of mentoring is also nonexistent. Using web and in-person survey data among agricultural students, faculty, and potential private sector agribusiness employers, this paper attempts to investigate whether there are any significant differences in the application and use of career guidance by male and female students to prepare for careers prospects and align with the industry needs. The results will validate if there are significant differences in between male and female faculty in their perception of relevance of technical and employable skills as well as the use and application of career guidance and mentoring by students to increase their prospects with employers. The findings will be used to develop interventions that would help align student skills with employer expectations as well as upgrade faculty competencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents an analysis of various facets of inequality in Egypt using a political economy approach to understand how inequalities are reproduced in the Egyptian economy. It examines the drivers of income and wealth inequality, and the impact of uneven taxation. The paper highlights how the mismeasurement of top incomes can skew the measurement of inequality, and shows how Egypt has one of the biggest wealth gaps in the world. It investigates educational, gender, and healthcare inequalities and how they are reproduced across generations. The paper also highlights the disparity between urban and rural areas, which further contributes to inequality. It assesses why economic growth in Egypt has had limited success in reducing poverty and inequality, and analyzes how state and military interference in markets hampers the growth of the private sector. The paper concludes by examining how inequality, combined with a number of challenges that Egypt is facing, including increased authoritarianism, climate change, demographic pressures, and water security will likely exacerbate many of the country's socioeconomic and political problems. Overall, the study argues that inequality remains a key concern that, if left unaddressed, may lead to social unrest and instability in the long term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 25 January 2011 revolution in Egypt was the stage upon which both the people and new political subjectivities made their appearance, under the slogan 'we, the people'. Regardless of social class, gender, or age, the Egyptian people were affected by the revolutionary events as they experienced a revolution of the self. Using the theoretical framework of childhood studies and adapting a macro-structural approach, this paper explores how the process of memorialization of children killed during the protests and clashes of 2011–2012 ascribes them the status of martyrs of the revolution, like adults. In so doing, the paper intends to demonstrate that the recognized child martyrdom proves that children represent a new political subjectivity group which has emerged in the Egyptian revolutionary context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Womenʻs employment is not evenly distributed across sectors and firms and this variance in gender diversity can impact firmsʻ productivity and wages in both positive and negative ways according to theory. Using new economic census data from Egypt, this paper explores the relationship between gender diversity, productivity, and wages. Our first finding is that gender diversity is positively associated with productivity and wages in the knowledge-intensive service sector. Our second finding is that there is a negative or no association between gender diversity and productivity and wages among less knowledge-intensive service and both high- and low-tech manufacturing firms. These relationships are robust across different industry classifications and measures of diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The aim of this paper was to investigate online health information seeking and health literacy among non-medical college students in Egypt and the differences between the two genders. Subjects and methods: A cross-sectional descriptive design was used to collect data from 600 students through a self-administered questionnaire. Results: Most of the students searched for health information on the internet (82.3%). 90.3% of them used their mobile phones and 97.8% sought data via Google. Skin and hair problems was the most searched for topic (83.3%), followed by reproductive health (79.7%). Students perceived that rapid and easy access to information were the main advantages of health information seeking online (98.5% and 95.5%, respectively), while the lack of reliability and scarcity of information in the Arabic language were the main disadvantages (78.2% and 60.5%, respectively). Only 31.2% of the sample achieved an adequate literacy level. Females in our sample had a higher frequency of online health information seeking and a higher level of health literacy. They also had a higher percentage of searching for health data on YouTube and seeking nutrition information. On the other hand, males used online health applications more frequently and were more interested in physical fitness and smoking. Females perceived the high cost as the main disadvantage of online health information seeking, while males were more concerned about the reliability of information. Health literacy was positively related to female gender and frequency of online health information seeking. Conclusion: Using the internet to deliver health information according to each gender's preferences and concerns can encourage students to search for health information online and, therefore, raise their health literacy level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Review of African Political Economy is the property of Review of Political Economy (ROAPE) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In July 2013, after months of protest, Egypt's first democratically elected president, Mohammed Morsi, was ousted by the Egyptian armed forces. The Muslim Brotherhood, who supported Morsi, took to the streets, chanting and singing against the ousting, which they termed a military coup, while supporters of Sisi, who viewed it as a revolution, began producing songs to show their allegiance to the military leadership. While abundant research has been conducted on the role of oppositional and revolutionary music in Egypt since 2011, relatively little has been done on the widely popular pro-military music sometimes known as watani music. Watani songs are a genre of patriotic music made by popular artists to show their allegiance to the Egyptian armed forces. In this paper I examine the surge of watani songs and trace their history back to the Nasser era, thereby showing a continuity in style as well as content. I further argue that there are connections between nationalism and gender constructions, as the national project comes with obligations for men to offer their bodies to the cause. This obligation is aided by constructions about 'male bravery' and 'courage' that are designed to make men believe that military service is somehow essential to masculinity. Watani music, whether commissioned or not, fits well with this mythology of military men. It forms an ideological undercurrent, supports the narrative that it is necessary for patriotic military men to bravely safeguard the nation against its enemies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Middle East and North Africa region has the lowest level of women's land ownership in the world, yet little research has explored the barriers and opportunities women face in land ownership in the region. This paper identifies patterns, opportunities, and constraints of ownership of land and other assets (houses, livestock, poultry, and gold) by women and men in the Old and New Lands of Egypt. Based on a survey complemented with qualitative interviews, the study finds that both women and men viewed land and houses as the most economically and socially important assets, but they differed in what assets they considered to be valuable for women. The findings highlight the importance of implementing policies that optimize women's property ownership, even if they own non-land assets. The study concludes that while legal and economic interventions aid in accomplishing gender-equity goals, consciousness-raising initiatives are as crucial as pro-women policy reforms. HIGHLIGHTS Women are disadvantaged in land ownership in the New and Old Lands in Egypt, though not to the extent the literature has assumed for the MENA region. Patterns of asset ownership and control are similar to other regions: men own and control more land and housing; women own and sometimes control (liquefiable) livestock and gold Men underestimate women's preferences for owning immovable property (land and housing) even in the New Lands, where 20 percent of land titles are distributed to women. Women who acquire land remained hesitant or unwilling to enable their daughters to inherit land at par with their sons. While pro-women policy reforms should be implemented, consciousness-raising initiatives are equally crucial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The coronavirus disease known as COVID-19 (2019) pandemic may increase the likelihood of psychological symptoms that can reach the level of psychiatric disorders. Aim: We aimed to study psychiatric morbidity in patients with COVID-19 concerning gender differences and disease severity in the acute phase of infection and after 6 months. Methods: This is a multicenter follow-up study registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04459403). Patients were recruited consecutively from three quarantine hospitals in Egypt. Data were collected through a questionnaire built using Google Forms including the Arabic versions of General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS). Depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms were assessed after 6 months. Results: The study questionnaire was offered to 400 patients and 199 patients agreed to fill it. BDI and TAMS were higher in mild than moderate and severe COVID-19 (14, 8, 8, P-value = 0.009, 17, 13.5, 14, P-value = 0.04, respectively). Females showed a higher prevalence of depression, anxiety, sleep problems, and insomnia due to anxiety than males. Education level, marital status, previous psychiatric illness, and severity of COVID-19 independently affected depression. Marital status, family history of psychiatric illness, and chronic medical illness independently affected anxiety. On 6-month follow-up, BDI significantly decreased in males but not females. TMAS showed no significant changes, but the severity of anxiety was still higher in females. PTSD was more frequent in females (26 (37.1%) versus 4 (9.5%), respectively, P-value = 0.02). Conclusion: The prevalence and severity of depression and anxiety were higher in females than male participants, suggesting that females are more affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skin color affects women's self-image, a fact that has long been a consequence of racial discrimination and dominance as well as the prevalence of light-skinned models in modern advertisements and other forms of communication. Although not all women aspire to greater whiteness of complexion, this standard has influenced many countries that were once dominated by white invaders. As multiculturalism infuses developed and developing nations, however, these standards may be shifting away from generic and hegemonic visions toward more realistic and varied standards, requiring international marketers to be proactive rather than reactive in their customer engagement practices under the ethical frame of "perfectionism." To examine this perspective, the authors completed a cross-national qualitative study (in-depth interviews) in India, Egypt, and Ghana, where lightness of skin tone has been a culturally imposed prerequisite for women to be considered (and consider themselves) beautiful. Using customer engagement literature and the ethical perfectionism framework, this study investigates women in these countries who embrace or reject this standard, further contextualizing customer engagement research across international markets. Implications are offered as a way to advance multinational corporations' development of customer engagement along a mutually beneficial path. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Buffalo reproductive performance and sustained productivity measures remain inadequately studied. This study aimed to investigate the influences of calving age, parity, and calf gender on specific indicators, including days in milk (DIM), daily milk yield (DMY), total milk yield (TMY), and 270-days milk yield (270-DMY), alongside reproductive and economic parameters. Analyzing 2112 buffalo cow datasets from 1994-2022, acquired from five distinct farms associated with Egypt's Animal Production Research Institute (APRI) in Kafr El-Sheikh province, notable findings emerged. There was a marked influence of calving age and parity order on the milk yields, with buffaloes aged 8-10 years exhibiting peak yields. A significant uptrend was observed in milk yield metrics from the initial to the seventh parity. Notably, reproductive durations, including days open, calving intervals, and dry periods, peaked during the first parity. Economic evaluations revealed that first parity buffaloes recorded the least production expenditures. In contrast, seventh lactation buffaloes were the most profitable. A noteworthy observation was that buffalo calving less than six years demonstrated reduced production costs. Net profit showed the peak within the age of less than 6 to 8 years before tapering off. Contrarily, calf gender remained inconsequential across the studied parameters. The study highlights the importance of integrating production, reproductive, and economic determinants in buffalo breeding optimization strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the effects of gender and the learning context on learners' perceptions of Arabic consonant contrasts. To this end, 60 intermediate Arabic learners, half of which were males and half of which were females, were recruited from two different learning contexts: a study-abroad (SA) program in Egypt and an at-home (AH) setting at a western American university. Learners in the two groups were tested before and after a semester of Arabic study using a perception task that involved distinguishing four Arabic consonant contrasts: /d - dˁ/, /h - ħ/, /s - sˁ/, and /t - tˁ/). The results reveal that the advantage of females in segmental identification accuracy was not verified, as female performance did not significantly differ from male performance in any of the four target consonant contrasts. In contrast, the learning context was found to positively impact learners' perceptions of the target Arabic consonants, as the SA group significantly outperformed their counterparts in the AH environment on the /h - ħ/ and /d - dˁ/ contrasts. However, there were no significant differences between learners in the two different contexts regarding the two other consonant contrasts (i.e., /s - sˁ/ and /t - tˁ/). The findings bring insights into the understanding of the gender-based differences in identifying problematic Arabic consonantal contrasts for English learners in two different contexts of learning, and they shed light on the implications for language pedagogy for pronunciation training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While there have been debates within gender studies on the gendering of the body and of the gendered nature of clothing, this paper shows that multimodality, with its attention to the finer details of communication, can provide a way to help us to think more carefully about how fashion communicates ideas and identities through textile affordances such as form, texture, weight, durability, colour, etc. Taking hijab fashion in Egypt as a case in point, a multimodal approach is able to reveal how Muslim women use clothing to communicate a number of different discourses simultaneously. These include modesty, religious identity and tradition, on the one hand, and freedom, confidence and modernity, on the other. This analysis allows us both to problematise the monolithic representations of Islamic clothing usually found in Western media, and also to think more carefully about the ways in which clothing both constrains and enables women's agency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Patients with peripheral neuropathy (PN) have subtle central pathology that might contribute to cognitive impairment. P300 is a cognitive potential that is connected to both sensory and cognitive processes. Subjects with neurocognitive disorders have considerably longer P300 latency. This study aims to investigate P300's potential as a marker of early-stage cognitive deterioration in PN patients and also, the effect of gender on P300 in patients with PN. Results: A study group of 60 subjects with PN of various etiologies and no other neurological conditions was included, in addition to, a control group of 40 volunteers with normal hearing sensitivity and no central or peripheral auditory neurological abnormalities. P300 response showed significant delayed latencies in study group when compared to control group. Male group had significant delayed P300 latencies in comparison to female group. As regard P300 amplitude, male group showed no statistically significant differences in comparison to female group. Conclusions: Although patients with PN apparently have normal cognitive function, the results in this study revealed the possibility of subtle cognitive impairment. Cognitive functions are affected in both axonal PN and demyelinating PN, however there were no differences found between the two subgroups. Auditory evoked potentials, particularly P300 can be used easily for early detection of subclinical cognitive impairment before appearance of any neurological manifestations. P300 latencies are more important than amplitudes and may be used alone or in addition to amplitudes in cognitive function assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the achievements gained towards increased gender diversity in corporations, the issue is far from being settled. Today, the pursuit for increased gender diversity extends to tackle who should sit on the board of directors. In fact, this debate is not country specific. There has been an increasing debate about policy mandating women participation on boards (WOB) worldwide. And the recent period has witnessed growing research examining the impact of female board membership on firm value, but the evidence remains inconclusive. In a market whereby women's presence in top positions remains lesser socially acceptable, the importance of investigating the impact of such policy mandates is even greater. Egypt is unique context to investigate, because despite its institutional barriers to women roles, it is on the verge of change post the aftermath of the "Arab Spring". Using a unique dataset, we investigate the impact of women board diversity on firm performance on a sample of 114 Egyptian firms, which represent active Egyptian nonfinancial publicly listed firms with data available for the year 2013. After accounting for firm size, board size, industry, and CEO duality, our findings reveal a positive significant association between percentage of women on board (WOB) members and firm value (ROE). For robustness, we also use Tobin Q as an alternative measure. We find this direct effect to be positively moderated by industry (service sector). The results highlights the positive impact of female board membership on firm value as measured by ROE and Tobin Q, despite social barriers to female leaders, indicating a positive direction to the perceived legitimacy of increased WOB at a unique time in Egypt's history. The paper provides implications for management policies to prepare more females for senior roles and address the false preconceptions about expected market reactions to the appointment of females on boards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Street-based sexual harassment is a prevalent but understudied form of gender-based violence that restricts women's access to public spaces. Drawing on adaptations of the ecological model that identify the root causes of gender-based violence in patriarchy, in this study, we explore the causes of street harassment in informal areas of Greater Cairo. Our analysis is based on qualitative interviews and focus groups with male and female youth aged 13–29 years, parents of youth and community leaders in two informal areas. We supplement the qualitative data with descriptive analysis of a representative, 2016 survey of youth in informal areas of Cairo that measured experiences with and attitudes toward harassment. Harassment was prevalent in the study areas, and respondents tended to place the blame for harassment at the individual level of the ecological model, particularly women's behavior. However, there were also community- and societal-level factors that contributed to the prevalence of harassment. Patriarchal norms and stigmatization of women who are harassed reinforced victim-blaming, such that most young women were afraid to report experiences of harassment due to social censure. In this context, educational or awareness raising interventions are unlikely to be effective in combating harassment, which is widely acknowledged to be a problem. Rather, interventions are needed along the different levels of the ecological model to target peer group and community norms that encourage harassment, address harassment in schools and strengthen reporting mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non–extenstive statistics play a significant role in studying the dynamic behaviour of COVID-19 to assist epidemiological scientists to take appropriate decisions about pandemic planning. Generic non–extensive and modified–Tsallis statistics are used to analyze and predict the morbidity and mortality rates in future. The cumulative number of confirmed infection and death in Egypt at interval from 4 March 2020 till 12 April 2022 are analyzed using both non–extensive statistics. Also, the cumulative confirmed data of infection by gender, death by gender, and death by age in Egypt at interval from 4 March 2020 till 29 June 2021 are fitted using both statistics. The best fit parameters are estimated. Also, we study the dependence of the estimated fit parameters on the people gender and age. Using modified–Tsallis statistic, the predictions of the morbidity rate in female is more than the one in male while the mortality rate in male is greater than the one in female. But, within generic non-extensive statistic we notice that the gender has no effect on the rate of infections and deaths in Egypt. Then, we propose expressions for the dependence of the fitted parameters on the age. We conclude that the obtained fit parameters depend mostly on the age and on the type of the statistical approach applied and the mortality risk increased with people aged above 45 years. We predict - using modified–Tsallis - that the rate of infection and death in Egypt will begin to decrease till stopping during the first quarter of 2025. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pathways through which the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted population mental health are potentially gendered. Little research has explored these pathways in low- and middle-income country contexts, such as in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, where socioeconomic roles are highly gendered. To address this gap, we examine the relationships between pandemic-related socioeconomic changes and subjective wellbeing in the MENA region. Our core hypothesis is that the COVID-19 pandemic affected men and women's subjective wellbeing differently in part because these effects were mediated by gendered socioeconomic roles. We exploit multiple waves of longitudinal, nationally-representative phone survey data across Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia. The data were collected between November 2020 and August 2021 and include 32,296 observations of 20,256 unique individuals. Mental health is measured through the WHO-5 subjective wellbeing scale. Our key independent variables capture pandemic-related employment loss, income loss, experience of limitations on food access, enrollment of children in alternative schooling modalities, and receipt of formal and informal transfers. We find significantly worse subjective wellbeing for women in Egypt and Morocco during the pandemic, but not the three other countries. There were negative associations between employment and income loss during the pandemic and subjective wellbeing, but not gender-differentiated ones. In contrast, high levels of limitations on food access were associated with worse mental health for men than women. Receipt of transfers generally did not have any association with subjective wellbeing. Further research is needed into how social assistance programs implemented in response to pandemics may be designed so as to address the negative mental health consequences of such events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Against the background of profound social and economic changes, this paper analyzes patterns of school-to-work transition for four cohorts of Egyptian school leaver during the period from 1970–2012. Using retrospective longitudinal data from the Egyptian Labor Market Panel Survey 2012 our analyses reveal for women a U-shaped and for men an L-shaped relationship between education and transition rates to first job. We also find a divergent role of education for access to different labor market segments. Specifically, there is a strong positive education gradient on the probability of finding a first job in the privileged public sector and a reversed effect for access to the private informal sector for both men and women. Regarding time trends we find, counter to what is often suspected, that later cohorts of school leaver do not make slower first employment transitions than earlier cohorts. Males from later cohort have even higher transition rates to first jobs than earlier cohorts. For men, returns to higher education are decreasing with respect to the transition rate to the first job and remain stable at positive levels with respect to public sector access probability. For women, returns to higher education remain stable at positive levels with respect to the transition rate to the first job and are strongly increasing with respect to public sector access probability. These differences reflect that alternative employment opportunities in the private sector are education- and gender-specific. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has documented how maternal employment influences daughters' participation in paid employment. However, we know far less about how maternal employment during daughters' adolescence relates to the daughters' subsequent employment stability. Analyzing data from three waves (2006, 2012, and 2018) of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (N = 3,345) using structural equation models, this study compares the employment stability of women with and without working mothers during adolescence and examines how the influence of maternal employment on daughters' employment stability varies with employment sector. Furthermore, a decomposition method is applied to determine the extent to which daughters' education mediates the association between maternal employment and their employment stability. The results show that mothers' employment is positively associated with their adult daughters' employment stability. This intergenerational association is sector specific: mothers' employment in a given sector only bolsters their daughters' employment stability in the same sector. The daughter's education mediates only a small portion of the intergenerational association in the public sector. The findings highlight the important role of Egypt's institutional settings in configuring the intergenerational transmission of employment stability among women, and suggest that policies that support working mothers have the potential to bolster their daughters' long-term labor market attachment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is the least prevalent antibody type; it plays a key role in host immunity against parasitic infections and allergic diseases. Association between IgE deficiency and higher malignancy rates has been suggested in many studies. Objectives: The goal of our study was to determine the prevalence of ultra-low total IgE levels and their variations according to sex and age among the Egyptian population. Methodology: This multicenter retrospective cross-sectional study included serum total IgE and CBC records of 1099 children and 993 adults recruited from private and public hospitals in Egypt between 2015 and 2021. Total IgE levels were classified into ultra-low, normal, high, and very high. Results: Of all included subjects, 0.8% had ultra-low IgE levels and 74.4% had normal IgE levels. High and very high serum total IgE levels were 24.1% and 0.7%, respectively. IgE levels were significantly higher among adults than children 45 (16.5–113.25) IU/ml vs. 20 (10–75) IU/ml; p < 0.001and among private hospital's patients than the public one (40 (15–98.4) IU/ml vs. 25 (10–98.4) IU/ml; p = 0.002. No significant difference between total IgE serum levels regarding gender (p = 0.825). Total IgE levels were higher among young adults, with a gradual decline among older patients and a peak among the 50 s and 60 s patients. Pearson correlation between IgE and absolute eosinophilic count showed positive correlation but did not reach significant level r = 0.04, p = 0.367. Conclusion: Age and socioeconomic class have impacts on total IgE levels with a relatively low prevalence of ultra-low IgE among the Egyptian population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to explore difference in the perception of a university mission among faculty and staff members. The study is conducted in one of the private universities in Egypt. The DePaul Mission and Values (DMV) Inventory questionnaire was used to collect data. Questionnaires were followed by interviews to gain more in-depth analysis of data collected. Three main dimensions were studied including perception of mission, identity, and programs. A 7-point Likert scale was used as a response mode. Some statements were modified as they reflect the Catholic nature of DePaul institution which is not applicable to the current study. Research findings show differences in the perception of institution's mission by gender and position. This is significantly related to the role of opinion leaders. Difference in the perception of mission statement is highly influenced by the type of communication used by leaders, gender differences in an Arab culture, and the level of concern given to university members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of African Diaspora: Transnational Journal of Culture, Economy & Society is the property of Brill Academic Publishers and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In Egypt, the economic costs incurred by spouses to pay for a marriage are huge, going far beyond the parties' regular income. Migration often appears to be the only possible way to amass the capital required to pay the expenses associated with their establishment as a couple and to support the household. This article is based on data collected in the course of several ethnographic surveys carried out between 2014 and 2017 in a village in the Nile Delta, and deals with the issue of establishing a family in the context of migration for men who have left for France, and for women who remain in the village. It presents the marriage of migrants in the village as an instrument which both guarantees the homecoming of the men who have emigrated and enables the upward social mobility of women without however challenging the patriarchal organisation of Egyptian society. Résumé: En Égypte, les coûts économiques engagés par les futurs époux pour le paiement du mariage sont colossaux, dépassant largement les revenus réguliers des contractants. La migration apparaît souvent comme une voie possible pour accumuler les capitaux économiques nécessaires au paiement des frais consécutifs à la mise en couple et à l' entretien du ménage. Cet article s' appuie sur des données récoltées lors de plusieurs enquêtes ethnographiques réalisées entre 2014 et 2017 dans un village du Delta du Nil. Cette contribution aborde la question du "faire famille" en situation migratoire pour des hommes partis en France, mais également pour des femmes restées au village. Elle présente le mariage des migrants au village comme un instrument qui assure à la fois le retour des hommes émigrés et permet l' ascension sociale des femmes sans pour autant remettre en cause l' organisation patriarcale de la société égyptienne. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The public sector is the key employer of educated women in Arab countries. This article seeks to explain this phenomenon, embedding the employment experience of these women within the knowledge base of public service motivation (PSM). Relying on semi-structured interviews conducted with women from Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, this article highlights three motivational factors among this group: "pure" service motivation; gender-specific motives; and extrinsic factors. The article shows that women's work in the public sector is socially valued for reasons that pertain to a culture of gender expectations and respect for the public service. The analysis extends the scholarship on PSM into a global context and highlights the limitations of a PSM scholarship that is focused on attitudinal statements. The qualitative data supports an argument for the inclusion of contextual variables pertaining to institutions of socialization, gender roles, historical contexts, and labor market conditions into PSM research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beginning as early as the Twelfth Dynasty, female masculinity was an alternative for Egyptian royal women seeking to legitimize their claim to the throne, communicate their power, and exercise their authority. The Eighteenth Dynasty female king Hatshepsut (ca. 1473–1458 BCE) attracted the most attention for not conforming to traditional western gender norms. However, three hundred years before Hatshepsut, a lesser-known female king—Sobekneferu (ca. 1777–1773 BCE)—embodied power through her performance of masculinity (Halberstam 1998: 1–5). She promoted herself as king of Egypt by assuming a full royal titulary, employing kingly accoutrements, appropriating masculine garb, portraying herself in strong masculine poses, and adopting male prerogatives. Some of Sobekneferu's preserved imagery illustrates clearly a woman in masculine poses with royal insignia, but her statue in the Louvre (E 27135) shows her with the addition of male dress items (fig. 1 ; Berman and Letellier 1996: 47; Grajetzki 2006, 63; Callender 1998a: 233–35). With the creation of this statue, Sobekneferu intentionally modified her attire and intensified her expression of female masculinity. Bust of Sobekneferu, Louvre E 27135. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louvre%5f032007%5f01.jpg&oldid=186838900. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2011 Egyptian revolution was associated with significant political and social upheaval, followed by societal changes and attempts by policymakers to reduce the marginalisation of women and promote their inclusion in the economy. Drawing on this background, the authors compare the effect of board gender diversity before and after the revolution. Results indicate that gender diversity in corporate boards is coupled with improvements in firm performance in the immediate post revolution phase. This evidence provides insights into the contextual factors related to diversity and performance relationship and supporting arguments for regulatory changes to further encourage women's representation on boards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to examine the associations between employee voice, job satisfaction and intention to leave. In addition, it investigates the moderating role of employee gender on the link between job satisfaction and intention to leave. Using structural equation modelling, and based on a sample of 551 travel agency employees in Egypt, the results show that employee voice is a key predictor of employees' intention to leave. Furthermore, it has been found that employee voice has a higher association with job satisfaction for male employees, while the association between job satisfaction and intention to leave is almost identical between males and females. The findings hold significant implications for theory and practice. Theoretically, the study makes a valuable contribution to the body of knowledge focusing on employee voice in the tourism industry. Practically, the findings help travel agency managers improve employee voice practices, which, given the tourism industry's reputation for high turnover and poor job security, is critical in achieving greater job stability and employee retention. Among other recommendations, one of the most important proffered by this study is for tourism businesses to improve job satisfaction by increasing the communication flow between managers and employees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Egypt has been severely affected by the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) since March 2020. To slow the spread of Coronavirus (COVID-19), measures such as social isolation, travel restrictions and stay-at-home are dramatically increasing the risk of domestic violence. Objectives. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of various forms of spousal violence against women and explore whether the prevalence of domestic violence changed during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to its prevalence one year before. Material and methods. Using a web-based cross-sectional survey, we collected data from 2,190 Egyptian women using an anonymous online questionnaire. The survey was conducted through a link shared on social networks from 20 May 2020 to 20 June 2020. A semi‑structured questionnaire was used to collect data on socio‑demographic variables and details of domestic violence. Results. The overall prevalence of spousal violence during the COVID-19 pandemic was 43.2%, with physical violence being the most common type. 52.75% of abused women did not disclose the abuse or seek assistance although suffering. The findings revealed a significant increase in the rate of the overall spousal violence and all forms of violence (emotional, physical and sexual violence) during the COVID-19 pandemic quarantine (p < 0.05). Age, duration of marriage, educational status of subjects and their spouses, residence, spouse with substance-abuse, depression, and insomnia were reported as significant predictors of domestic violence among the Egyptian women. Conclusions. The prevalence of domestic violence in Egypt is considerably high and significantly increased during COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women in Middle Eastern and North African countries continue to report low levels of agency, despite their increasing educational attainment and declining fertility rates. We address this paradox by considering how women's agency is linked to parenthood in Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia and how this association is moderated by their level of education. We study three dimensions of instrumental agency: involvement in decision-making, financial autonomy, and freedom of movement using data for married women aged 18–49 from the Integrated Labor Market Panel Surveys: Egypt 2012 (n = 7622), Jordan 2016 (n = 4550), Tunisia 2014 (n = 1480). Results from multivariate regression models of these different dimensions demonstrate that married women who are mothers generally exhibit higher levels of agency than their counterparts who are childless, though this does not hold for every dimension and the strength of the association between parenthood and agency differs by dimension and country. We find a notable exception to this pattern of positive association in the Egyptian sample: parenthood decreases agency among Egyptian women with post-secondary education. Our results suggest that parenthood may only increase women's agency in settings with deeply entrenched patriarchal norms that imply little education for women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To study urinary stone composition patterns in different populations around Materials and methods: Data were collected by reviewing charts of 1204 adult patients of 10 countries with renal or ureteral stones (> 18 years) in whom a stone analysis was done and available. Any method of stone analysis was accepted, but the methodology had to be registered. Results: In total, we observed 710 (59%) patients with calcium oxalate, 31 (1%) with calcium phosphate, 161 (13%) with mixed calcium oxalate/calcium phosphate, 15 (1%) with carbapatite, 110 (9%) with uric acid, 7 (< 1%) with urate (ammonium or sodium), 100 (9%) with mixed with uric acid/ calcium oxalate, 56 (5%) with struvite and 14 (1 %) with cystine stones. Calcium-containing stones were the most common in all countries ranging from 43 to 91%. Oxalate stones were more common than phosphate or mixed phosphate/oxalate stones in most countries except Egypt and India. The rate of uric acid containing stones ranged from 4 to 34%, being higher in Egypt, India, Pakistan, Iraq, Poland and Bulgaria. Struvite stones occurred in less than 5% in all countries except India (23%) and Pakistan (16%). Cystine stones occurred in 1% of cases. Conclusions: The frequency of different types of urinary stones varies from country to country. Calcium-containing stones are prevalent in all countries. The frequency of uric acid containing stones seems to depend mainly on climatic factors, being higher in countries with desert or tropical climates. Dietary patterns can also lead to an increase in the frequency of uric acid containing stones in association with high obesity rates. Struvite stones are decreasing in most countries due to improved health conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines how gender norms and household gender dynamics are modified in Egypt as a result of male return migration from other Arab Countries. Data come from the 2006 and 2012 Egyptian Labor Market Panel Survey. For 7,314 married couples in 2006 and 8,992 married couples in 2012, treatment effects regression models of gender norms and household decision-making and return migration are estimated. Egyptian women with spouses who have migrated to an Arab country and returned value more traditional gender norms. Women in households with a spouse who returned also make fewer household decisions compared to women in non-migrant households. Women with spouses who have migrated multiple times also make fewer household decisions compared to women who had a spouse migrate before 2006. The findings suggest transformation of household gender dynamics and reinforcement of traditional gender ideologies by male emigration to and immigration from other Arab countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim of the work: This study aimed at assessing the dominance of risk practices associated with HCV endemicity in Egypt and detecting the behavioral development level concerning different aspects of HCV risk behaviors with respect to age and gender. The survey highlights the most cost-effective strategies that could accelerate HCV elimination in Egypt. Subjects and methods: A national household survey targeted 3780 individuals (age range: 10–85 years). The sample was a systematic probability proportionate to size from 6 governorates representing the six major subdivisions of Egypt. The indicators used for assessing the behavioral development level towards HCV included six domains: awareness (7 indicators), perceived risk (5 indicators), motivation with the intention to change (4 and 5 indicators for males and females respectively), trial, rejection or adoption (6 and 5 indicators for males and females respectively). Results: The study revealed that along the continuum of behavior development, the percentage of the participants who acquired half of the scores was as follows: 73.1% aware, 69.8% developed perceived risk, 80.6% motivated with only 28.9% adopting the recommended behaviors, 32% rejected them, 2.3% were in the trial stage versus 35.8% who did not try any. Adolescents had significantly lower levels of development for almost all domains when compared to adults. Statistical higher significance was detected in favor of adults, employees, married, Lower Egypt governorates, and university-educated participants (p<0.001) regarding awareness, perceived risk, and motivation scores. More than half of the participants incorrectly believed that contaminated food, sharing food utilities, contaminated water, mosquitoes, and schistosomiasis would lead to HCV transmission. Conclusion: Egypt would be closer to HCV elimination when cost-effective strategies are directed not towards creating awareness, perceived risk or motivation to change- (at an acceptable level)- but towards motivating adopting risk-reduction behaviors for HCV, tackling misconceptions and reinforcement of social support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the lives and travel writings of two post-Ottoman women writers, Demetra Vaka Brown (1877–1946), a former Ottoman Greek who immigrated to the United States in the late nineteenth century, and Leila Ahmed (1940–), an Egyptian-American scholar whose family was of Turko-Circassian origins. While Vaka Brown's The Unveiled Ladies of Stamboul (1923) is a post-World War I memoir that nostalgically reminisces on the Ottoman era, Ahmed's A Border Passage (1999) examines the political twists and turns in twentieth-century Egypt, and their implications for Ahmed's family. Both women grapple with their Ottoman heritage, exploring constructions of gender as they intersect with Ottoman religious beliefs, class strata, and post-Ottoman nationalisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Egypt faces multiple interlinked challenges such as unemployment, poverty and gender inequality that pose tremendous barriers in the current efforts to achieve sustainable development. Aquaculture is a primary sector of the economy that has high potential to not only for provide nutritious food, but also to contribute to the national economy. The aquaculture value chain provides substantial employment generation opportunities, including for females and the youth. This paper assesses employment generation along the different stages of the aquaculture value chain in the main governorates that are responsible for about 80% of the Egyptian aquaculture production. In particular it analyses data from surveys in hatcheries (N=40), feed mills (N=14), fish farms (N=234), and fish trading and retailing (N=182) as a proxy of employment generation patterns for the entire sector. We estimated that aquaculture generates 19.56 Full Time Equivalent (FTE) jobs per 100t of produced fish along the entire value chain. However most of these jobs are generated for males over 30 years of age, with few jobs for females or younger people. Most jobs for female are currently generated at the retailing stage. Boosting employment generation across the entire value chain, especially for females and the youth, can contribute to the attainment of multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) such as SDG 8 and SDG 5. • We assess employment generation across the aquaculture value chain in Egypt. • 19.56 Full Time Equivalent (FTE) jobs are generated across the value chain per 100 tons fish produced. • Lower job generation for females and the youth (<30 years old) • Substantial employment generation for females is observed only in retailing stage. • Aquaculture can contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 8 and 5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Before the Arab uprisings, the EU wishfully pinned its hope on a spill-over effect from trade to political reform as well as onto actors' socialization. In Egypt, this strategy fell prey to Mubarak's 'carrot-and-stick' approach to the nascent NGO sector and its adjusted policy discourse that resonated with Brussels. Drawing upon Mubarak's mistakes, the post-Revolution regime morphed into an overtly repressive apparatus designed to 'kill' civil society and prevent a new 25 January to occur. In this space, within which the EU enters as an external actor, our findings indicate that even if its presence is perceived in a positive light in many instances, actors highlight what they view as an EU shift toward more security-oriented practices, underpinned only by Cairo rulers' efforts to reframe cooperation around a 'fight-against-terrorism' agenda that continues to sway from the realization of human rights-particularly of gender justice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Egypt is one of three countries where half of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) victims live, despite its ban. To inform policy on the awareness of this ban and the impact of other interventions, this study sought to assess FGM/C-related knowledge, perceptions, and determinants of disagreement with FGM/C and circumcision of future daughters among university students. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted using a self-administered questionnaire in a random sample of 502 male and female students in Menoufia University between September and December 2017. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed. Results: Students were 21.0 ± 1.6 years old; 270 (54.0%) were males, 291 (58.0%) were non-medical students, and 292 (58.2%) were rural residents. 204 (46.7%) students were not aware of the ban and their main source of information about FGM/C was educational curricula or health education sessions (162, 37.0%). Only 95 (19.0%) students had good knowledge about FGM/C. 217 (43.3%) students were neutral towards discontinuing FGM/C. 280 (56.2%) students disagreed with FGM/C. 296 (59.3%) students disagreed with circumcision of their future daughters; independent determinants of this outcome were awareness of the ban (ORa = 1.9) and disagreement with: FGM/C preserves females' virginity (ORa = 5.0), has religious basis (ORa = 3.8), makes females happier in marriage (ORa = 3.5), enhances females' hygiene (ORa = 2.1). Conclusions: Knowledge about FGM/C and its ban is low, even in this educated population. FGM/C is still misperceived as a religious percept. Maximizing the utilization of health education and curricula might help increase anti-FGM/C attitudes among university students with neutral perceptions and initiate the much-needed momentum for elimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last decade, Egypt's aquaculture sector has expanded rapidly, which has contributed substantially to per capita fish supply, and the growth of domestic fish markets and employment across the aquaculture value chain. Despite the growing importance of aquaculture sector in Egyptian labour force, only a few studies have explored the livelihoods of Egypt's women and men fish retailers. Even fewer studies have examined gender-based market constraints experienced by these informal fish retailers. This study uses sex-disaggregated data collected in 2013 in three governorates of Lower Egypt to examine the economic and social constraints to scale of enterprises between women (n = 162) and men informal fish retailers (n = 183). Specifically, we employ linear regression method to determine the correlates of enterprise performance. We found that both women and men retailers in the informal fish market earn low profits and face livelihood insecurities. However, women's enterprise performance is significantly lower than that of men even after controlling for individual socio-economic and retailing characteristics. Specifically, the burden of unpaid household work and lack of support therein impedes women's ability to generate higher revenues. These findings strengthen the argument for investing in understanding how gender norms and attitudes affect livelihood options and outcomes. This leads to recommendations on gender-responsive interventions that engage with both men and women and enhance the bargaining power and collective voice of fish retailers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The taxonomy of Family Nitidulidae has received little attenuation; all previous studies were limited to descriptions of new species and lists with general notes of some species. In this work, eleven Egyptian species belonging to four subfamilies and sex genera were taxonomically studied. Keys to the subfamilies, genera and species of family Nitidulidae. The diagnostic characters, synonyms, local geographical distribution and illustrations are given to the species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite increased access to education, women's conspicuous absence from the labour market in Egypt, and the Arab world in general, has been a key issue. Building on the stock of evidence on women's employment, this study provides a qualitative analysis of the torrent of challenges that educated married and unmarried women face as they venture into the labour market in Egypt. Single women highlight constrained opportunities due to job scarcity and compromised job quality. Issues of low pay, long hours, informality and workplace suitability to gender propriety norms come to the fore in the interview data. Among married working women, the conditions of the work domain are compounded by challenges of time deprivation and weak family and social support. The article highlights women's calculated and aptly negotiated decisions to work or opt out of the labour market in the face of such challenges. The analysis takes issue with the culturalist view that reduces women's employment decisions to ideology. It brings to the context of Arab countries three global arguments pertaining to the inseparability of work and family for women; the role of social policies and labour market conditions in defining women's employment decisions; and the potential disconnect between employment and empowerment. By looking at women as jobseekers and workers, the analysis particularly highlights the intersectionality of different forms of inequality in defining employment opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological conditions. We aimed to identify sex differences in the demographic, clinical features, and treatment strategies in epileptic patients. Objectives: To analyze and compare the differences in the impact of epilepsy on the socio-demographic characteristics of male and female patients along with gender differences in various types of epilepsies and treatment strategies. Material and methods: A record-based study for 1000 individuals attending the epilepsy outpatient clinic. The medical records were reviewed through a predesigned questionnaire to obtain all relevant data. Statistical analysis: Data was summarized using range, mean, standard deviation, and median interquartile range for quantitative variable or frequency and percentage for the qualitative ones. Comparison between groups was done using chi-square test. Results: Females were more illiterate and unemployed compared to males. Tonic-clonic seizures were more frequent in males. Specific epileptic syndromes as juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) were more frequent in females (p = 0.01). More males had an underlying secondary etiology (p = 0.001). The most common drug used was valproate (51.2%) which was more utilized by males. Conclusions: Significant differences between both sexes were observed in certain social impacts in addition to seizure syndromes, etiology, and drug utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature from the Middle East and North Africa holds that many youth get stuck in a phase of “wait adulthood” while they struggle to afford the housing, furniture, appliances, celebrations, and jewelry considered necessary to establish a new marital union. In semi-structured interviews with 66 urban Egyptian men and women who were engaged to be married, I found that many marriages were postponed when young couples were unable to make the matrimonial transactions required by custom. However, I argue that normative barriers are no less important than material barriers to marriage in this context. Matrimonial transactions could not be reduced or forgone because they communicated important meanings related to class and gender. The celebrations and home visits that accompanied a new union involved conspicuous consumption, and actors strove to reproduce the material behaviors that predominated in their social class in order to secure a favorable position in the hierarchy of new couples. Matrimonial transactions were sharply gendered, and adherence to matrimonial norms and the ritualized situations that came with them signaled actors’ dedication to ideals of masculinity and femininity and the unequal roles they would occupy within marriage, at the same time that matrimonial exchanges built in safeguards for women within marriage. Young couples were keenly aware that failure to live up to the material standards of their social circles would be met with loss of face and negative judgements about their personal qualities, making such outlays appear to be compulsory rather than optional. At the same time, conforming to matrimonial customs resulted in greater symbolic capital, or social prestige. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]