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In 2015, the European Commission laid out its Circular Economy Package for providing the way to a transition towards a sustainable European economy. The package was followed by a serious of measures aimed at increasing circularity in the EU economy. While the first steps were carried out, it proved to be a long way to establish a circular economy. In 2019, the circularity rate stood around 11% with large variations among the Member States. When the new Commission proposed its EU Green Deal in 2019, a new impetus was given to promote the economic transition. However, efforts come at a time when the Union is confronted with several serious enormous challenges (e.g., increased global competition, raw material scarcity, mounting volumes of waste, climate change, Covid-19). Furthermore, in February 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union after four years of draining negotiations. With the departure of the UK, the EU has not only lost a major economic power but also a Member State actively steering discussions during EU environmental policy-making processes. Accordingly, Brexit will change the face of the EU and its efforts in establishing a circular economy. True, in the past UK governments showed a mixed record of environmental policy engagement. And London did not spare criticizing, down-washing or even blocking several environmental regulations of the EU (e.g., habitat laws, glyphosate, energy efficiency directive, national renewable targets), but the Union lost an active and highly developed economic and political power with extraordinary capacities, international outreach and influence. Accordingly, Brexit not only represents a major change to environmental governance in the United Kingdom but also for the Union. The study seeks to reveal major consequences of Brexit in regards to environmental policy-making of the EU-27, particularly focusing on the circular economy. To what extent does Brexit hamper EU efforts in establishing a circular economy? What are the consequences for EU policy-making aimed at reducing material consumption, increasing resource efficiency, and closing industrial loops? The study discusses short-term and long-term consequences in the economy and also in the political realm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the European Union (EU-27) and UK, animal farming generated annually more than 1.4 billion tonnes of manure during the period 2016–2019. Of this, more than 90% is directly re-applied to soils as organic fertiliser. Manure promotes plant growth, provides nutritious food to soil organisms, adds genetic and functional diversity to soils and improves the chemical and physical soil properties. However, it can also cause pollution by introducing toxic elements (i.e., heavy metals, antibiotics, pathogens) and contribute to nutrient losses. Soil organisms play an essential role in manure transformation into the soil and the degradation of any potential toxic constitutes; however, manure management practices often neglect soil biodiversity. In this review, we explored the impact of manure from farmed animals on soil biodiversity by considering factors that determine the effects of manure and vice versa. By evaluating manure's potential to enhance soil biodiversity, but also its environmental risks, we assessed current and future EU policy and legislations with the ultimate aim of providing recommendations that can enable a more sustainable management of farm manures. This review explored the relationship between manure and soil biodiversity by considering 407 published papers and relevant legislative provisions. In addition, we evaluated whether benefits and risks on soil biodiversity are considered in manure management. Thereafter, we analysed the current legislation in the European Union relevant to manure, an important driver for its treatment, application and storage. This review found that coupling manure management with soil biodiversity can mitigate present and future environmental risks. Our analyses showed that manure quality is more important to soil biodiversity than manure quantity and therefore, agricultural practices that protect and promote soil biodiversity with the application of appropriate, high-quality manure or biostimulant preparations based on manure, could accelerate the move towards more sustainable food production systems. Soil biodiversity needs to be appropriately factored in when assessing manure amendments to provide better guidelines on the use of manure and to reduce costs and environmental risks. However, radical changes in current philosophies and practices are needed so that soil biodiversity can be enhanced by manure management. Manure quality in the EU requires greater attention, calling for more targeted policies. Our proposed approach could be applied by European Union Member States to include soil protection measures in national legislation, and at the EU level, can enable the implementation of strategic goals. [Display omitted] • More than 1.4 billion t y−1 of manure are generated in the EU and UK and re-applied to soils with potential harmful effects. • Current European regulations on manure disposal are scattered across different legislations and ignore soil biodiversity. • This review of 407 documents revealed that manure quality is more important to soil biodiversity than manure quantity. • To promote soil biodiversity by manure amendments, a radical transformation in the way agriculture is conducted is needed. • This approach could reinforce EU MS' commitment to protect soils and improve future agricultural policies at the EU level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]