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Monoclonal antibodies targeted against the immune checkpoint molecules CTLA-4 and PD-1 have recently obtained approval for the treatment of metastatic melanoma and advanced/refractory non small-cell lung cancers. Therefore, their use will not be limited anymore to selected hospitals involved in clinical trials. Indeed, they will be routinely prescribed in many cancer centers across the world. Besides their efficacy profile, these immune targeted agents also generate immune-related adverse events (irAEs). This new family of dysimmune toxicities remains largely unknown to the broad oncology community. Although severe irAEs remain rare (~10% of cases under monotherapy), they can become life-threatening if not anticipated and managed appropriately. Over the last 5 years, Gustave Roussy has accumulated a significant experience in the prescription of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) antibodies and the management of their toxicities. Together with the collaboration of Gustave Roussy's network of organ specialists with expertise in irAEs, we propose here some practical guidelines for the oncologist to help in the clinical care of patients under ICB immunotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a complex system governing and interconnecting numerous functions within the human body, the immune system is unsurprisingly susceptible to the impact of toxic chemicals. Toxicants can influence the immune system through a multitude of mechanisms, resulting in immunosuppression, hypersensitivity, increased risk of autoimmune diseases and cancer development. At present, the regulatory assessment of the immunotoxicity of chemicals relies heavily on rodent models and a limited number of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) test guidelines, which only capture a fraction of potential toxic properties. Due to this limitation, various authorities, including the World Health Organization and the European Food Safety Authority have highlighted the need for the development of novel approaches without the use of animals for immunotoxicity testing of chemicals. In this paper, we present a concise overview of ongoing efforts dedicated to developing and standardizing methodologies for a comprehensive characterization of the immunotoxic effects of chemicals, which are performed under the EU-funded Partnership for the Assessment of Risk from Chemicals (PARC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are a novel type of environmental pollutant with a specific structure. PFCs have become a global concern due to their environmental persistence and biotoxicity properties. In this paper, we review the hazardous effects, detection technologies, and treatment methods of PFCs. We present the current status of PFCs pollution in water, the atmosphere, soil, and organisms. Moreover, we show that PFCs have toxic effects, such as hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity, endocrine disruption, and reproductive and developmental toxicity. Six sample pretreatment techniques and four assays for PFCs are listed in this paper. This review focuses on the analysis of the treatment methods for PFCs, such as physical adsorption, microbial degradation, photochemical oxidation, electrochemical oxidation, acoustic oxidation, Fenton oxidation, and so on. We systematically analyze the treatment effects, removal mechanisms, and future directions of various technologies to provide support and suggestions for PFCs pollution control technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bisphenol (BP‐)A is a chemical used in Europe to produce polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resin or as colour developer in thermal paper. Due to its toxicity, BPA presence was restricted by European regulations. Therefore, substitute chemicals are replacing BPA. Objective: To assess the allergenic sensitizing potential of 27 substitutes to BPA used in the industry. Methods: The expression of two costimulatory molecules and six cytokines were analysed by flow cytometry in mouse bone marrow‐derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) exposed to the chemicals. Results: All substances except one induced overexpression of at least one receptor and were thus identified as having allergenic sensitizing potential. Based on the BMDC model, they were classified as extreme (1 out of 27), strong (20 out of 27) and moderate (5 out of 27) sensitizers. BPA was classified as a moderate sensitizer and BPF was the only substitute classified as a non‐sensitizer. The more potent substitutes induced more than 2‐fold secretion of CCL3, CCL4 and/or CCL5 by dendritic cells. Conclusion: Most of the BPA substitutes tested in this study have an allergenic sensitizing potential; 24 of them being more potent than BPA itself. Only BPE, BPF and 2,4‐BPS appeared to be weaker sensitizers than BPA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID‐19 pandemic is a highly dramatic concern for mankind. In Italy, the pandemic exerted its major impact throughout the period of February to June 2020. To date, the awkward amount of more than 134,000 deaths has been reported. Yet, post‐mortem autopsy was performed on a very modest number of patients who died from COVID‐19 infection, leading to a first confirmation of an immune‐thrombosis of the lungs as the major COVID‐19 pathogenesis, likewise for SARS. Since then (June–August 2020), no targeted early therapy considering this pathogenetic issue was approached. The patients treated with early anti‐inflammatory, anti‐platelet, anticoagulant and antibiotic therapy confirmed that COVID‐19 was an endothelial inflammation with immuno‐thrombosis. Patients not treated or scarcely treated with the most proper and appropriate therapy and in the earliest, increased the hospitalization rate in the intensive care units and also mortality, due to immune‐thrombosis from the pulmonary capillary district and alveoli. The disease causes widespread endothelial inflammation, which can induce damage to various organs and systems. Therapy must be targeted in this consideration, and in this review, we demonstrate how early anti‐inflammatory therapy may treat endothelia inflammation and immune‐thrombosis caused by COVID‐19, by using drugs we are going to recommend in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The long-distance migration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) promotes their release into the marine environment, posing a serious threat to marine life. Studies have shown that PAHs have significant immunotoxicity effects on bivalves, but the exact mechanism of immunotoxicity remains unclear. This paper aims to investigate the effects of exposure to 0.4, 2, and 10 μg/L of benzo(a)pyrene (B[a]P) on the immunity of Chlamys farreri under environmental conditions, as well as the potential molecular mechanism. Multiple biomarkers, including phagocytosis rate, metabolites, neurotoxicity, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and apoptosis, were adopted to assess these effects. After exposure to 0.4, 2, and 10 μg/L B[a]P, obvious concentration-dependent immunotoxicity was observed, indicated by a decrease in the hemocyte index (total hemocyte count, phagocytosis rate, antibacterial and bacteriolytic activity). Analysis of the detoxification metabolic system in C. farreri revealed that B[a]P produced B[a]P-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE) through metabolism, which led to an increase in the expression of protein tyrosine kinase (PTK). In addition, the increased content of neurotransmitters (including acetylcholine, γ -aminobutyric acid, enkephalin, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin) and related receptors implied that B[a]P might affect immunity through neuroendocrine system. The changes in signal pathway factors involved in immune regulation indicated that B[a]P interfered with Ca2+ and cAMP signal transduction via the BPDE-PTK pathway or neuroendocrine pathway, resulting in immunosuppression. Additionally, B[a]P induced the increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) content and DNA damage, as well as an upregulation of key genes in the mitochondrial pathway and death receptor pathway, leading to the increase of apoptosis rate. Taken together, this study comprehensively investigated the detoxification metabolic system, neuroendocrine system, and cell apoptosis to explore the toxic mechanism of bivalves under B[a]P stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Repair and reconstruction of large bone defect were often difficult, and bone substitute materials, including autogenous bone, allogenic bone and artificial bone, were common treatment strategies. The key to elucidate the clinical effect of these bone repair materials was to study their osteogenic capacity and immunotoxicological compatibility. In this paper, the mechanical properties, micro-CT imaging analysis, digital image analysis and histological slice analysis of the three bone grafts were investigated and compared after different time points of implantation in rat femur defect model. Autogenous bone and biphasic calcium phosphate particular artificial bone containing 61.4% HA and 38.6% β-tricalcium phosphate with 61.64% porosity and 0.8617 ± 0.0068 g/cm3 density (d  ≤ 2 mm) had similar and strong bone repair ability, but autogenous bone implant materials caused greater secondary damage to experimental animals; allogenic bone exhibited poor bone defect repair ability. At the early stage of implantation, the immunological indexes such as Immunoglobulin G, Immunoglobulin M concentration and CD4 cells' population of allogenic bone significantly increased in compared with those of autologous bone and artificial bone. Although the repair process of artificial bone was relatively inefficient than autologous bone graft, the low immunotoxicological indexes and acceptable therapeutic effects endowed it as an excellent alternative material to solve the problems with insufficient source and secondary trauma of autogenous bone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plastic waste degrades slowly in aquatic environments, transforming into microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), which are subsequently ingested by fish and other aquatic organisms, causing both physical blockages and chemical toxicity. The fish immune system serves as a crucial defense against viruses and pollutants present in water. It is imperative to comprehend the detrimental effects of MPs on the fish immune system and conduct further research on immunological assessments. In this paper, the immune response and immunotoxicity of MPs and its combination with environmental pollutants on fish were reviewed. MPs not only inflict physical harm on the natural defense barriers like fish gills and vital immune organs such as the liver and intestinal tract but also penetrate cells, disrupting intracellular signaling pathways, altering the levels of immune cytokines and gene expression, perturbing immune homeostasis, and ultimately compromising specific immunity. Initially, fish exposed to MPs recruit a significant number of macrophages and T cells while activating lysosomes. Over time, this exposure leads to apoptosis of immune cells, a decline in lysosomal degradation capacity, lysosomal activity, and complement levels. MPs possess a small specific surface area and can efficiently bind with heavy metals, organic pollutants, and viruses, enhancing immune responses. Hence, there is a need for comprehensive studies on the shape, size, additives released from MPs, along with their immunotoxic effects and mechanisms in conjunction with other pollutants and viruses. These studies aim to solidify existing knowledge and delineate future research directions concerning the immunotoxicity of MPs on fish, which has implications for human health. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Extended-One-Generation Study [EOGRTS, OECD 443] is a study in which the toxic effects of test substances on reproduction (Cohort 1), neurodevelopment (Cohort 2), and development of the immune system (Cohort 3) in rats are evaluated. The latter two Cohorts are not always required according to the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) based on data from previously performed toxicity studies. Although the Cohorts for developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) and developmental immunotoxicity (DIT) are often omitted, the F 1 -animals normally required for these Cohorts are still maintained for evaluation of sexual maturation since three F 1 -animals/sex/litter/group are required according to OECD Guidance Document (GD) No. 151. This review investigates whether two F 1 -animals/sex/litter/group would suffice for this endpoint by investigating the rationale provided by the GD and by comparing results of eighteen EOGRTSs in which three versus two F 1 -animals/sex/litter/group were evaluated. After a comprehensive literature research, we concluded that the rationale in the GD does not substantiate the decision to use three F 1 -animals/sex/litter/group. The scientific papers provided as rationale focused on male observations and the observations discussed do not match the observations for sexual maturation mentioned by the guidelines. The investigation using data from eighteen EOGRTSs showed that the toxicological conclusions, whether the test substance affected sexual maturation or not, matched when comparing data of two F 1 -animals/sex/litter/group to three F 1 -animals/sex/litter/group. To conclude, two F 1 -animals/sex/litter/group would suffice for the evaluation of sexual maturation, which negates the requirement for a so called "Cohort 1 C" (i.e. 160 animals (80 males and 80 females)) per EOGRTS, as well as the number of regulated procedures that need to be performed. • ECHA requires 3 pups/sex/litter for sexual maturation assessment in the EOGRTS. • This review investigates whether 2 pups/sex/litter would suffice for this endpoint. • A comparison was made for 2 versus 3 pups using data from 18 EOGRTSs. • It was concluded that 2 pups/sex/litter would suffice for a complete evaluation. • Thereby reducing treatment time and handling for 160 animals per study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With a growing interest in the concept of a circular economy, the use of lignocellulosic residues, such as lignins and humins, as potential renewable feedstock for biorefining processes looks increasingly promising. Many challenges remain for the sustainable use of humins, starting from the need to provide reference data reflecting actual usable feedstocks of such materials. This paper offers the first study, from this perspective, of the potential environmental fate of those materials and components, all related to furanics, a family of compounds the toxicity of which is still a matter of debate. Conventional ecotoxicity and biodegradability tests required by European regulation on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) for the primary evaluation of environmental hazards were conducted in combination with fish immunomarker tests to study possible long‐term effects on aquatic ecosystems. These first results are promising as humins did not give rise to any immediate ecotoxicological concerns, and hence their use could be considered in environment‐friendly applications. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The immunotoxic potential of drug candidates is assessed through the examination of results from a variety of studies and endpoints. While the functional assessment of CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL) is well-characterized in the clinic, the lack of a robust macaque CTL functional assay has been an important hurdle in evaluating and accurately quantifying cell-mediated CD8+ T-cell effector responses in the nonclinical setting. This paper describes the development of an assay to measure CTL activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) isolated from Cynomolgus macaques. A human EGFR/CD3 Bispecific T-cell Engager (BiTE®) was used to mount a robust CD8+ T-cell response in the presence of target-expressing cells. Upon target engagement, degranulation of CD107a and production of interferon (IFN)-γ both reliably indicated a robust functional response in CD8+ T-cells. The BiTE®-mediated stimulation method proved to be favorable when compared to other methods of stimulation in the absence of target cells. These studies demonstrated acceptable longitudinal variability of the functional assay and sensitivity to dexamethasone-mediated immunosuppression. Taken together, the results indicated an assay leveraging CD3-bispecific antibodies and target-expressing cells can provide a robust approach to the in vitro or ex vivo assessment of CTL function in Cynomolgus macaques. Because the impairment of CTL activity by immunomodulators is recognized to be an important contributor to decreased antiviral defense and increased carcinogenicity risk, we believe that this novel assay to be a valuable addition to the immunotoxicology assessment of therapeutic drug candidates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and similar environmental contaminants, have been linked to virus outbreaks and increased viral induced mortality since the 1970s. Yet the mechanisms behind this increased susceptibility remain elusive. It has recently been illustrated that the innate immune viral detection system is tightly regulated by small non‐coding RNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs). For virus infections miRNA‐155 expression is an important host response against infection, and deregulation of this miRNA is closely associated with adverse outcomes. Thus, we designed a targeted in vitro study using primary chicken fibroblasts, first exposed to a mixture of PCBs (Arochlor‐1250) before being stimulated with a synthetic RNA virus (poly I:C), to determine if PCBs have the potential to deregulate miRNA‐155. In this paper, we provide the first data for the deregulation of miRNA‐155 when a host is exposed to a mixture of PCBs before a virus infection. Thus, we provide important evidence that PCBs can be involved in the deregulation of important miRNA pathways involved in the immune system; thereby demonstrating novel insights into the mechanism of PCB toxicity on the immune system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) are persistent organic pollutants in the environment and have serious health risks, including endocrine disrupting properties, immunotoxicity and developmental effects etc. The photochemical degradation has been proven to be a low-cost, efficient and sustainable technology for the removal of PFOX (X = A or S) in water. At present, most of the investigations have been conducted in ultrapure water and at concentrations much higher comparing to those detected in the real wastewaters. Furthermore, there are few studies about the toxicity of treated water. In this paper, the state of knowledge on the photocatalytic degradation of PFOX, including photo-oxidative and photo-reductive degradation, is reviewed comprehensively. Compared with photo-oxidation, photo-reduction appears to be more suitable for the PFOX removal since it is more favorable for the defluorination of PFOX and further complete mineralization. The effects of key parameters on the photocatalytic degradation and defluorination process of PFOX are commendably accessed, such as light wavelength, photocatalyst concentration, initial PFOX concentration, pH, reaction atmosphere, temperature, and coexisting organic or inorganic matters. The mechanisms of PFOX photodegradation process are also elucidated in detail. This paper will help to deeply understand PFOX decomposition process and put forward better perspectives in the future for researchers who work in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

2,2′,4,4′-Tetrabrominated biphenyl ether (BDE-47) is a polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) homologue that is ubiquitous in biological samples and highly toxic to humans and other organisms. Prior research has confirmed that BDE-47 can induce oxidative damage in RAW264.7 cells, resulting in apoptosis and impaired immune function. The current study mainly focused on how Isoliquiritigenin (ISL) and Licochalcone B (LCB) might protect against BDE-47's immunotoxic effects on RAW264.7 cells. The results show that ISL and LCB could increase phagocytosis, increase the production of MHC-II, and decrease the production of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β) and co-stimulatory factors (CD40, CD80, and CD86), alleviating the immune function impairment caused by BDE-47. Secondly, both ISL and LCB could reduce the expressions of the proteins Bax and Caspase-3, promote the expression of the protein Bcl-2, and reduce the apoptotic rate, alleviating the apoptosis initiated by BDE-47. Additionally, ISL and LCB could increase the levels of antioxidant substances (SOD, CAT, and GSH) and decrease the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby counteracting the oxidative stress induced by BDE-47. Ultimately, ISL and LCB suppress the NF-κB pathway by down-regulating IKBKB and up-regulating IκB-Alpha in addition to activating the Nrf2 pathway and promoting the production of HO-1 and NQO1. To summarize, BDE-47 causes oxidative damage that can be mitigated by ISL and LCB through the activation of the Nrf2 pathway and inhibition of the NF-κB pathway, which in turn prevents immune function impairment and apoptosis. These findings enrich the current understanding of the toxicological molecular mechanism of BDE-47 and the detoxification mechanism of licorice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prebiotics are known as the ‘food’ for beneficial gut microbiota that are capable of promoting host health. Their effects depend on the product of gut fermentation or metabolites. This paper discusses the role of prebiotics on cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and cell integrity. Metabolites produced from the fermentation of prebiotics can be used to understand gut diseases such as colorectal cancer. Fecal water fromin vivoorin vitrostudies can be used to understand the relationship between prebiotics and gut diseases because of its close contact with colon epithelium. Besides, fecal water has compounds that are capable of modifying colonocytes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a complex system governing and interconnecting numerous functions within the human body, the immune system is unsurprisingly susceptible to the impact of toxic chemicals. Toxicants can influence the immune system through a multitude of mechanisms, resulting in immunosuppression, hypersensitivity, increased risk of autoimmune diseases and cancer development. At present, the regulatory assessment of the immunotoxicity of chemicals relies heavily on rodent models and a limited number of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) test guidelines, which only capture a fraction of potential toxic properties. Due to this limitation, various authorities, including the World Health Organization and the European Food Safety Authority have highlighted the need for the development of novel approaches without the use of animals for immunotoxicity testing of chemicals. In this paper, we present a concise overview of ongoing efforts dedicated to developing and standardizing methodologies for a comprehensive characterization of the immunotoxic effects of chemicals, which are performed under the EU-funded Partnership for the Assessment of Risk from Chemicals (PARC).

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) have been present on Earth for over 2 billion years, and can produce a variety of bioactive molecules, such as cyanotoxins. Microcystins (MCs), the most frequently detected cyanotoxins, pose a threat to the aquatic environment and to human health. The classic toxic mechanism of MCs is the inhibition of the protein phosphatases 1 and 2A (PP1 and PP2A). Immunity is known as one of the most important physiological functions in the neuroendocrine-immune network to prevent infections and maintain internal homoeostasis in fish. The present review aimed to summarize existing papers, elaborate on the MC-induced immunotoxicity in fish, and put forward some suggestions for future research. The immunomodulatory effects of MCs in fish depend on the exposure concentrations, doses, time, and routes of exposure. Previous field and laboratory studies provided strong evidence of the associations between MC-induced immunotoxicity and fish death. In our review, we summarized that the immunotoxicity of MCs is primarily characterized by the inhibition of PP1 and PP2A, oxidative stress, immune cell damage, and inflammation, as well as apoptosis. The advances in fish immunoreaction upon encountering MCs will benefit the monitoring and prediction of fish health, helping to achieve an ecotoxicological goal and to ensure the sustainability of species. Future studies concerning MC-induced immunotoxicity should focus on adaptive immunity, the hormesis phenomenon and the synergistic effects of aquatic microbial pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the early 2000s, studies of the evolution of venom within animals have rapidly expanded, offering new revelations on the origins and development of venom within various species. The venomous mammals represent excellent opportunities to study venom evolution due to the varying functional usages, the unusual distribution of venom across unrelated mammals and the diverse variety of delivery systems. A group of mammals that excellently represents a combination of these traits are the slow (Nycticebus spp.) and pygmy lorises (Xanthonycticebus spp.) of south-east Asia, which possess the only confirmed two-step venom system. These taxa also present one of the most intriguing mixes of toxic symptoms (cytotoxicity and immunotoxicity) and functional usages (intraspecific competition and ectoparasitic defence) seen in extant animals. We still lack many pieces of the puzzle in understanding how this venom system works, why it evolved what is involved in the venom system and what triggers the toxic components to work. Here, we review available data building upon a decade of research on this topic, focusing especially on why and how this venom system may have evolved. We discuss that research now suggests that venom in slow lorises has a sophisticated set of multiple uses in both intraspecific competition and the potential to disrupt the immune system of targets; we suggest that an exudate diet reveals several toxic plants consumed by slow and pygmy lorises that could be sequestered into their venom and which may help heal venomous bite wounds; we provide the most up-to-date visual model of the brachial gland exudate secretion protein (BGEsp); and we discuss research on a complement component 1r (C1R) protein in saliva that may solve the mystery of what activates the toxicity of slow and pygmy loris venom. We conclude that the slow and pygmy lorises possess amongst the most complex venom system in extant animals, and while we have still a lot more to understand about their venom system, we are close to a breakthrough, particularly with current technological advances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a known endocrine disruptor found in many consumer products that humans come into contact with on a daily basis. Due to increasing concerns about the safety of BPA and the introduction of new legislation restricting its use, industry has responded by adopting new, less studied BPA analogues that have similar polymer-forming properties. Some BPA analogues have already been shown to exhibit effects similar to BPA, for example, contributing to endocrine disruption through agonistic or antagonistic behaviour at various nuclear receptors such as estrogen (ER), androgen (AR), glucocorticoid (GR), aryl hydrocarbon (AhR), and pregnane X receptor (PXR). Since the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) issued a draft re-evaluation of BPA and drastically reduced the temporary tolerable daily intake (t-TDI) of BPA from 4 mg/kg body weight/day to 0.2 ng/kg body weight/day due to increasing concern about the toxic properties of BPA, including its potential to disrupt immune system processes, we conducted a comprehensive review of the immunomodulatory activity of environmentally abundant BPA analogues. The results of the review suggest that BPA analogues may affect both the innate and acquired immune systems and can contribute to various immune-mediated conditions such as hypersensitivity reactions, allergies, and disruption of the human microbiome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is assumed that mycotoxins have been present in feed and food since the beginning of eukaryotic fungi's life on Earth. With the recognition of the symptoms of the first intoxications, the so-called mycotoxicosis, there was a desire to find strategies in the fight against secondary metabolites of different types of fungi. The mycotoxins that most commonly contaminate feed are aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN) and fumonisin B1 (FB1). These mycotoxins can primarily cause hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, and consequently cause adverse effects on animal health and performance. Today, in the 21st century, the need to find a multidisciplinary and integrated plan in the fight against mycotoxins has grown with the realization that mycotoxins cause large-scale damage in livestock. Physical, chemical, biological and nutritional strategies have been developed to combat mycotoxins in the feed industry. Meanwhile, the use of each of these strategies achieves benefits, but also has drawbacks, including being expensive or impractical to apply on a large scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dust, both industrial and household, contains particulates that can reach the most distal aspects of the lung. Silica and nickel compounds are two such particulates and have known profiles of poor health outcomes. While silica is well-characterized, nickel compounds still need to be fully understood for their potential to cause long-term immune responses in the lungs. To assess these hazards and decrease animal numbers used in testing, investigations that lead to verifiable in vitro methods are needed. To understand the implications of these two compounds reaching the distal aspect of the lungs, the alveoli, an architecturally relevant alveolar model consisting of epithelial cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells in a maintained submerged system, was utilized for high throughput testing. Exposures include crystalline silica (SiO2) and nickel oxide (NiO). The endpoints measured included mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and cytostructural changes assessed via confocal laser scanning microscopy; cell morphology evaluated via scanning electron microscopy; biochemical reactions assessed via protein arrays; transcriptome assessed via gene arrays, and cell surface activation markers evaluated via flow cytometry. The results showed that, compared to untreated cultures, NiO increased markers for dendritic cell activation, trafficking, and antigen presentation; oxidative stress and cytoskeletal changes, and gene and cytokine expression of neutrophil and other leukocyte chemoattractants. The chemokines and cytokines CCL3, CCL7, CXCL5, IL-6, and IL-8 were identified as potential biomarkers of respiratory sensitization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In November of 2021, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) released a draft scientific opinion on bisphenol A (BPA) exposure and health outcomes released to the public. EFSA concluded that the most sensitive outcome category to BPA exposure is the immune system. In this scientific opinion, EFSA utilized a weight of evidence approach to conclude that it is likely that BPA exposure promotes the development of TH17 cell-mediated atopic respiratory disease (eg, wheezing, rhinitis and asthma). Here, we present a dissenting analysis to that put forward in the draft EFSA scientific opinion and raise concerns about the studies and EFSA's interpretation of data that were used to arrive at their conclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Exposure to perfluorinated alkylate substances (PFAS) is associated with harmful effects on human health, including developmental immunotoxicity. This outcome was chosen as the critical effect by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), which calculated a new joint reference dose for four PFAS using a Benchmark Dose (BMD) analysis of a study of 1-year old children. However, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently proposed much lower exposure limits. Methods: We explored the BMD methodology for summary and individual data and compared the results with and without grouping for two data sets available. We compared the performance of different dose-response models including a hockey-stick model and a piecewise linear model. We considered different ways of testing the assumption of equal weight-based toxicity of the four PFAS and evaluated more flexible models with exposure indices allowing for differences in toxicity. Results: Results relying on full and decile-based data were in good accordance. However, BMD results for the larger study were lower than observed by EFSA for the smaller study. EFSA derived a lower confidence limit for the BMD of 17.5 ng/mL for the sum of serum-PFAS concentration, while similar calculations in the larger cohort yielded values of about 1.5 ng/mL. As the assumption of equal weight-based toxicity of the four PFAS seems questionable, we confirmed dose-dependencies that allowed potency differences between PFAS. We also found that models linear in the parameters for the BMD analysis showed superior coverage probabilities. In particular, we found the piecewise linear model to be useful for Benchmark analysis. Conclusions: Both data sets considered could be analyzed on a decile basis without important bias or loss of power. The larger study showed substantially lower BMD results, both for individual PFAS and for joint exposures. Overall, EFSA's proposed tolerable exposure limit appears too high, while the EPA proposal is in better accordance with the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging pollutants with scarcely investigated effects on human innate immunity. If they follow a similar course of action as other, more thoroughly investigated particulates, MNPs may penetrate epithelial barriers, potentially triggering a cascade of signaling events leading to cell damage and inflammation. Inflammasomes are intracellular multiprotein complexes and stimulus-induced sensors critical for mounting inflammatory responses upon recognition of pathogen- or damage-associated molecular patterns. Among these, the NLRP3 inflammasome is the most studied in terms of activation via particulates. However, studies delineating the ability of MNPs to affect NLRP3 inflammasome activation are still rare. In this review, we address the issue of MNPs source and fate, highlight the main concepts of inflammasome activation via particulates, and explore recent advances in using inflammasome activation for assessment of MNP immunotoxicity. We also discuss the impact of co-exposure and MNP complex chemistry in potential inflammasome activation. Development of robust biological sensors is crucial in order to maximize global efforts to effectively address and mitigate risks that MNPs pose for human health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a new alternative to perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonic acid (6:2 FTSA) has been widely produced and used in recent years, and its concentration and frequency of detection in the aquatic environment and aquatic organisms are increasing. However, studies of its toxicity in aquatic biological systems are alarmingly scarce, and the relevant toxicological information needs to be improved. In this study, we investigated AB wild-type zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos subjected to acute 6:2 FTSA exposure for immunotoxicity using immunoassays and transcriptomics. Immune indexes showed significant decreases in SOD and LZM activities, but no significant change in NO content. Other indexes (TNOS, iNOS, ACP, AKP activities, and MDA, IL-1β, TNF-α, NF-κB, TLR4 content) all showed significant increases. These results indicated that 6:2 FTSA induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in zebrafish embryos and exhibited immunotoxicity. Consistently, transcriptomics showed that genes involved in the MAPK, TLR and NOD-like receptor signaling pathways (hsp70, hsp701, stat1b, irf3, cxcl8b, map3k8, il1b, tnfa and nfkb) were significantly upregulated after 6:2 FTSA exposure, suggesting that 6:2 FTSA might induce immunotoxicity in zebrafish embryos through the TLR/NOD-MAPK pathway. The results of this study indicate that the safety of 6:2 FTSA should be examined further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immunotoxicity, defined as adverse effects of xenobiotics on the immune system, is gaining increasing attention in the approval process of industrial chemicals and drugs. In-vivo and ex-vivo experiments have been the gold standard in immunotoxicity assessment so far, so the development of in-vitro and in-silico alternatives is an important issue. In this paper we describe a widely applicable, easy-to use computational approach which can serve as an initial immunotoxicity screen of new chemical entities. Molecular fingerprints describing chemical structure were used as parameters in a machine-learning approach based on the Naïve-Bayes learning algorithm. The model was trained using blood-cell growth inhibition data from the NCI database and validated externally with several in-house and literature-derived data sets tested in cytotoxicity assays on different types on immune cells. Both cross-validations and external validations resulted in areas under the receiver operator curves (ROC/AUC) of 75% or higher. The classification of the validation data sets occurred with excellent specificities and fair to excellent selectivities, depending on the data set. This means that the probability of actual immunotoxicity is very high for compounds classified as immunotoxic, while the fraction of false negative predictions might vary. Thus, in a multistep immunotoxicity screening scheme, the classification as immunotoxic can be accepted without additional confirmation, while compounds classified as not immunotoxic will have to be subjected to further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) have potential applications in cosmetics, food packaging and biomedicine but concerns regarding their safety need to be addressed. In the present study, the immunotoxic potential of ZnO NPs was evaluated in different ages of BALB/c mice after sub-acute exposure. The cytokine release, immunophenotyping, distribution of ZnO NPs and ultrastructural changes were assessed. A significant (p < 0.05) change in the CD4- and CD8-cells, levels of IL-6, IFN-γ and TNF-α and reactive oxygen species were observed in aged mice. In juvenile mice, increase in reactive oxygen species and IL-6 and TNF-α levels was observed with no significant changes in adult mice. A significant (p < 0.05) increase in the expression levels of mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade proteins such as phospho-ERK1/2, phospho-JNK and phospho-p38 were also induced in aged mice. Collectively, our results indicate that the aged mice are more susceptible to ZnO NP induced immunotoxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ochratoxin A (OTA), a toxin produced by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium verrucosum, is one of the most abundant food-contaminating mycotoxins worldwide. OTA mainly exerts nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and neurotoxicity. This paper describes a simple and sensitive aptamer/single-walled carbon nanohorn (SWCNH)-based assay for OTA detection. SWCNHs can protect DNA from DNase I cleavage. However, aptamers can be detached from the surface of SWCNHs through specific target binding, exposing them to enzymatic cleavage and releases the target for a new cycle. Cycling of targets leads to significant signal amplification and low limit of detection (LOD), resulting in a nearly 20-fold reduction in LOD for OTA assay compared with non-target recycling under the same experimental parameters. This technique responded specifically to OTA without interference from other analogues (Ochratoxin B, Ochratoxin C, warfarin, and N -acetyl- l -phenylalanine). Moreover, the application of this technique in real sample has been verified using red wine samples spiked with a series of OTA concentrations. This aptasensor offers a great practical importance in food safety and can be widely extended for detection of other toxins by replacing the sequence of the recognition aptamer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the coexistence risks of triphenyltin (TPT) and norfloxacin (NOR) to aquatic organisms in the aquatic environment. Carp (Cyprinus carpio) was used as the test organism, the control and exposure groups (1 μg/L TPT), 1 mg/L (NOR), 1 μg/LTPT+1 mg/LNOR (TPT_NOR)) were set up according to the environmental concentration in the severely polluted area for 42 days. The single/combined toxic effects of TPT and NOR on aquatic organisms were evaluated by analyzing carp brain transcriptome sequencing, gut microbiota structure, and detection of biochemical indicators and RT-qPCR. Our results show that TPT and NOR induce lipid metabolism disorder in carp brain tissue, affecting the metabolism of cytochrome P450 to exogenous substances, and NOR also induces immunosuppression in carp. Long-term exposure to TPT combined with NOR amplifies the monotoxicity of TPT or NOR on lipid metabolism and immunosuppression in carp, induces immune dysfunction in brain tissue and changes in gut microbiota structure. However, TPT_NOR has no obvious neurotoxicity on the brain, but it can inhibit the level of intestinal MDA. This highlights that co-exposure of TPT and NOR amplifies metabolic disorders and immunosuppressive functions in carp. [Display omitted] • TPT induces disorder of lipid metabolism in carp. • NOR induces lipid accumulation in carp and leads to immune dysfunction. • TPT combined with NOR amplifies the immunotoxicity and metabolic toxicity to carp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current paper, a new strategy for risk assessment of nanomaterials is described, which builds upon previous project outcomes and is developed within the FP7 NANoREG project. NANoREG has the aim to develop, for the long term, new testing strategies adapted to a high number of nanomaterials where many factors can affect their environmental and health impact. In the proposed risk assessment strategy, approaches for (Quantitative) Structure Activity Relationships ((Q)SARs), grouping and read-across are integrated and expanded to guide the user how to prioritise those nanomaterial applications that may lead to high risks for human health. Furthermore, those aspects of exposure, kinetics and hazard assessment that are most likely to be influenced by the nanospecific properties of the material under assessment are identified. These aspects are summarised in six elements, which play a key role in the strategy: exposure potential, dissolution, nanomaterial transformation, accumulation, genotoxicity and immunotoxicity. With the current approach it is possible to identify those situations where the use of nanospecific grouping, read-across and (Q)SAR tools is likely to become feasible in the future, and to point towards the generation of the type of data that is needed for scientific justification, which may lead to regulatory acceptance of nanospecific applications of these tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bisphenol A (BPA) is not a natural substance but is produced artificially during the manufacturing of various plastics. Exposure to (BPA) is a pervasive and growing concern. BPA has recently been classified as a substance of great concern by the European Union (EU). BPA is suspected to be associated with several chronic human health effects. In this study, the estimated total BPA exposure levels were based on biomonitoring of the general population, and exposure levels ranged from a mean of 0.031 to 0.042 µg/kg body weight (bw)/day, reaching up to 0.104 µg/kg bw/day in the high-exposure population. When comparing the exposure levels of BPA to some toxicological effects, such as immunotoxicity and thyroid function, a sufficient exposure margin was not secured in the high-exposure group. Food is considered the main source of exposure for the general population, but other sources of exposure may exist in the high-exposure group. As humans are primarily exposed to BPA through food, water, house dust, skin contact, and air, integrated risk management is required to reduce BPA exposure. In addition, it is considered necessary to develop a new methodology for human health evaluation in response to low-dose exposure to BPA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and deoxynivalenol (DON) are the three mycotoxins that have received the most scholarly attention and have been tested most routinely in clinics. These mycotoxins not only suppress immune responses but also induce inflammation and even increase susceptibility to pathogens. Here, we comprehensively reviewed the determining factors for the bidirectional immunotoxicity of the three mycotoxins, their effects on pathogens, and their action mechanisms. The determining factors include mycotoxin exposure doses and times, as well as species, sex, and some immunologic stimulants. Moreover, mycotoxin exposure can affect the infection severity of some pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Their specific action mechanisms include three aspects: (1) mycotoxin exposure directly promotes the proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms; (2) mycotoxins produce toxicity, destroy the integrity of the mucosal barrier, and promote inflammatory response, thereby improving the susceptibility of the host; (3) mycotoxins reduce the activity of some specific immune cells and induce immune suppression, resulting in reduced host resistance. The present review will provide a scientific basis for the control of these three mycotoxins and also provide a reference for research on the causes of increased subclinical infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are of public health concern, because of their ubiquitous and extremely persistent occurrence, and depending on their structure, their bio-accumulative, mobile and toxic properties. Human health effects associated with exposure to PFAS include adverse effects on the immune system. In 2020, EFSA (the European Food Safety Authority) defined adverse effects on the immune system as the most critical effect for human health risk assessment, based on reduced antibody responses to childhood vaccines and similar effects observed in experimental animal studies. Likewise, the U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) considers PFAS-induced immunotoxicity, especially in children, as the critical effect for risk assessment. However, the mechanisms by which antibody concentrations are impacted are not completely understood. Furthermore, other targets of the immune system functions have been reported in the literature. Objective: The aim of this review is to explore PFAS-associated immune-related effects. This includes, relevant mechanisms that may underlie the observed effects on the immune system, immunosuppression as well as immunoenhancement, such as i) modulation of cell signalling and nuclear receptors, such as NF-κB and PPARs; ii) alteration of calcium signalling and homoeostasis in immune cells; iii) modulation of immune cell populations; iv) oxidative stress and v) impact on fatty acid metabolism & secondary effects on the immune system. Methods: A literature research was conducted using three databases (Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus), which were searched in July 2021 for relevant studies published in the time frame from 2018 to 2021. In total, 487 publications were identified as potentially eligible and following expert-based judgement, articles relevant for mechanisms of PFAS induced immunotoxicity are discussed. Conclusions: Taken together, we show that there is substantial evidence from both in vitro and in vivo experimental as well as epidemiological studies, supporting that various PFAS, not only PFOA and PFOS, affect multiple aspects of the immune system. Timing of exposure is critical, because the developing immune system is especially vulnerable to toxic insults, resulting in a higher risk of particularly adverse immune effects but also other organs later in life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immunotoxicity has been an important topic in toxicology since inadvertent exposures to xenobiotics were found to alter immune functions in humans. While rodent toxicity tests can reveal some levels of immunotoxicity, alternative methods must be developed to identify the detailed mechanisms. In this study, a method of in vitro prediction of innate immune suppression by substances was developed using a genomics approach. The primary selection of immune suppressors was based on their ability to downregulate MCP-1, CCL3, TNF, IL-8, and IL-12p40 expression levels in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated THP-1 cells. Among 11 substances classified as potent immune suppressors, six including dexamethasone, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, prednisolone, sodium lauryl sulfate, and benzoic acid were used to create a dataset by transcriptomics of chemical-treated THP-1 cells using bulk RNA sequencing. We selected genes that were significantly upregulated by suppressor treatment while filtering out genes also upregulated in LPS-treated THP-1 cells. We identified a 226-gene immunosuppressive gene set (ISG). Innate immune suppressor signature scores were calculated as the median expression of the ISG. In a validation dataset, the signature score predicted acyclovir, cyclosporine, and mercuric chloride as immune suppressors, while selecting genistein as a non-immune suppressor. Although more dataset integration is needed in the future, our results demonstrated the possibility and utility of a novel genomics-based approach, the transcriptome-based determination of innate immune suppressor (TDIS) assay, to evaluate innate immune suppression by different substances. This provides insight into the development of future alternative testing methods because it reflects a comprehensive genetic signature derived from multiple substances rather than one cytokine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a gas that affects mucosal functions in mammals. However, its detrimental effects are less understood in fish despite being known to cause mass mortality. Here we used explant models to demonstrate the transcriptional responses of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) mucosa to the sulphide donor sodium hydrosulphide (NaHS). The study focused on two groups of genes: those encoding for sulphide detoxification and those for mucins. Moreover, we performed pharmacological studies by exposing the organ explants to mucus-interfering compounds and consequently exposed them to a sulphide donor. Exposure to NaHS significantly affected the expression of sulphide:quinone oxidoreductase (sqor1, sqor2) and mucinencoding genes (muc5ac, muc5b). The general profile indicated that NaHS upregulated the expression of sulphide detoxification genes while a significant downregulation was observed with mucins. These expression profiles were seen in both organ explant models. Pharmacological stimulation and inhibition of mucus production used acetylcholine (ACh) and niflumic acid (NFA), respectively. This led to a significant regulation of the two groups of marker genes in the gills and olfactory rosette explants. Treatment of the mucosal organ explants with the mucus-interfering compounds showed that low dose NFA triggered more substantial changes while a dose-dependent response could not be established with ACh. Pharmacological interference demonstrated that mucins played a crucial role in mucosal protection against H2S toxicity. These results offer insights into how a sulphide donor interfered with mucosal responses of Atlantic salmon and are expected to contribute to our understanding of the least explored H2S-fish interactions--particularly at the mucosa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNP) are ubiquitously present in the environment due to their high persistence and bioaccumulative properties. Humans get exposed to MNP via various routes and consequently, they will encounter dendritic cells (DC) which are antigen-presenting cells involved in regulating immune responses. The consequences of DC exposure to MNP are an important, yet understudied, cause of concern. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the uptake and effect of MNP in vitro by exposing human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDC) to virgin and environmentally weathered polystyrene (PS) particles of different sizes (0.2, 1, and 10 µm), at different concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 µg/ml. The effects of these particles were examined by measuring co-stimulatory surface marker (i.e. CD83 and CD86) expression. In addition, T-cell proliferation was measured via a mixed-leukocyte reaction (MLR) assay. The results showed that MoDC were capable of absorbing PS particles, and this was facilitated by pre-incubation in heat-inactivated (HI) plasma. Furthermore, depending on their size, weathered PS particles in particular caused increased expression of CD83 and CD86 on MoDC. Lastly, weathered 0.2 µm PS particles were able to functionally activate MoDC, leading to an increase in T-cell activation. These in vitro data suggest that, depending on their size, weathered PS particles might act as an immunostimulating adjuvant, possibly leading to T-cell sensitization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regulators and risk managers in general need to decide whether an allergenic food or ingredient is of such public health importance that it needs to be actively managed. There is therefore a need to scale the relative allergenicity of foods and ingredients according to the hazards they pose. Objective criteria increase transparency and trust in this decision-making process and its conclusions. This paper proposes a framework that allows categorisation and prioritisation of allergenic foods according to their public health importance. The challenge is to find a basis on which the allergenicity of foods can best be described and a method to combine the relevant measures of allergenicity into a scoring system that prioritises allergenic foods on the basis of their public health relevance. The framework is designed in accordance with the generic risk analysis principles used in food safety and can be used by regulators to decide whether or not a specific allergenic food or ingredient is of sufficient public health importance that it warrants regulation (i.e. mandatory labelling) when used in the production of food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper describes the importance of toxicology as a discipline, its past achievements, current scientific challenges, and future development. Toxicological expertise is instrumental in the reduction of human health risks arising from chemicals and drugs. Toxicological assessment is needed to evaluate evidence and arguments, whether or not there is a scientific base for concern. The immense success already achieved by toxicological work is exemplified by reduced pollution of air, soil, water, and safer working places. Predominantly predictive toxicological testing is derived from the findings to assess risks to humans and the environment. Assessment of the adversity of molecular effects (including epigenetic effects), the effects of mixtures, and integration of exposure and biokinetics into in vitro testing are emerging challenges for toxicology. Toxicology is a translational science with its base in fundamental science. Academic institutions play an essential part by providing scientific innovation and education of young scientists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The preweaning piglet has been found to be a valuable research model for testing ingredients used in infant formula. As part of the safety assessment, the neonates' immune system is an important component that has to be evaluated. In this study three concurrent strategies were developed to assess immune system status. The methods included (1) immunophenotying to assess circulating innate immune cell populations, (2) monitoring of circulating cytokines, particularly in response to a positive control agent, and (3) monitoring of localized gastrointestinal tissue cytokines using immunohistochemistry (IHC), particularly in response to a positive control agent. All assays were validated using white papers and regulatory guidance within a GLP environment. To validate the assays precision, accuracy and sample stability were evaluated as needed using a fit for purpose approach. In addition animals were treated with proinflammtory substances to detect a positive versus negative signal. In conclusion, these three methods were confirmed to be robust assays to evaluate the immune system and GIT-specific immune responses of preweaning piglets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the field of science, technology and medicine, carbon-based nanomaterials and nanoparticles (CNMs) are becoming attractive nanomaterials that are increasingly used. However, it is important to acknowledge the risk of nanotoxicity that comes with the widespread use of CNMs. CNMs can enter the body via inhalation, ingestion, intravenously or by any other route, spread through the bloodstream and penetrate tissues where (in both compartments) they interact with components of the immune system. Like invading pathogens, CNMs can be recognized by large numbers of receptors that are present on the surface of innate immune cells, notably monocytes and macrophages. Depending on the physicochemical properties of CNMs, i.e., shape, size, or adsorbed contamination, phagocytes try to engulf and process CNMs, which might induce pro/anti-inflammatory response or lead to modulation and disruption of basic immune activity. This review focuses on existing data on the immunotoxic potential of CNMs, particularly in professional phagocytes, as they play a central role in processing and eliminating foreign particles. The results of immunotoxic studies are also described in the context of the entry routes, impacts of contamination and means of possible elimination. Mechanisms of proinflammatory effect depending on endocytosis and intracellular distribution of CNMs are highlighted as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various heteroatomic constituents are present in the composition of the petroleum, which have an important influence. Sulphur compounds are among the most important constituents of petroleum, and there are certain types of compounds in different types of petroleum. The presence of sulphur compounds in petroleum and its products often leads to harmful effects. The present work is aimed to predict the probable hepatotoxicity and four toxicological endpoints (carcinogenicity, immunotoxicity, mutagenicity and cytotoxicity) of twelve polycyclic aromatic sulphur heterocycles (benzothiophene derivatives) in petroleum by the ProTox-II software. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immune response is modulated by different substances that are present in the environment. Nevertheless, some of these may cause an immunotoxic effect. In this paper, the effect of organophosphorus pesticides (frequent substances spilled in aquatic ecosystems) on the immune system of fishes and in immunotoxicology is reviewed. Furthermore, some cellular and molecular mechanisms that might be involved in immunoregulation mechanisms of organophosphorus pesticides are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of nanomaterials has been increasing in recent times, and they are widely used in industries such as cosmetics, drugs, food, water treatment, and agriculture. The rapid development of new nanomaterials demands a set of approaches to evaluate the potential toxicity and risks related to them. In this regard, nanosafety has been using and adapting already existing methods (toxicological approach), but the unique characteristics of nanomaterials demand new approaches (nanotoxicology) to fully understand the potential toxicity, immunotoxicity, and (epi)genotoxicity. In addition, new technologies, such as organs-on-chips and sophisticated sensors, are under development and/or adaptation. All the information generated is used to develop new in silico approaches trying to predict the potential effects of newly developed materials. The overall evaluation of nanomaterials from their production to their final disposal chain is completed using the life cycle assessment (LCA), which is becoming an important element of nanosafety considering sustainability and environmental impact. In this review, we give an overview of all these elements of nanosafety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alongside physiochemical properties (PCP), it has been suggested that the protein corona of nanoparticles (NPs) plays a crucial role in the response of immune cells to NPs. However, due to the great variety of NPs, target cells, and exposure protocols, there is still no clear relationship between PCP, protein corona composition, and the immunotoxicity of NPs. In this study, we correlated PCP and the protein corona composition of NPs to the THP-1 macrophage response, focusing on selected toxicological endpoints: cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and cytokine secretion. We analyzed seven commonly used engineered NPs (SiO2, silver, and TiO2) and magnetic NPs. We show that with the exception of silver NPs, all of the tested TiO2 types and SiO2 exhibited moderate toxicities and a transient inflammatory response that was observed as an increase in ROS, IL-8, and/or IL-1β cytokine secretion. We observed a strong correlation between the size of the NPs in media and IL-1β secretion. The induction of IL-1β secretion was completely blunted in NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) knockout THP-1 cells, indicating activation of the inflammasome. The correlations analysis also implicated the association of specific NP corona proteins with the induction of cytokine secretion. This study provides new insights toward a better understanding of the relationships between PCP, protein corona, and the inflammatory response of macrophages for different engineered NPs, to which we are exposed on a daily basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Allergens can elicit immunotoxic effects in humans. It is often lifethreatening and severe that influences the prevalence and course of allergic diseases like asthma, allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and contact dermatitis. Genetic as well as environmental factors may contribute to allergy and related physiological responses. The pathogenesis of asthma and allergy involves the interaction of genetic markers and environmental factors. Various toxic compounds like metals, foods, even certain kinds of drugs can elicit immunotoxicity. Asthma is subjected to inflammation of the airways; of which genes and environment both are responsible in an interactive way. The innate immunity genes particularly CD 14 and Toll like receptors TLR4 and TLR 2 play an important role on susceptibility to asthma and allergy. The genes interrelated to asthma have been found through Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) studies. There are other risk factors associated with allergic diseases which require long-term, effective therapeutic approaches as a treatment regimen. The present study is an attempt to highlight the immunological reactions of certain compounds and gene-environment interplay in developing the pathological symptoms associated with asthma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]