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• Caste is an important and unique axis of inequality in India. Caste based digital divide can exacerbate the existing socioeconomic divisions between different caste groups. • Using non-linear decomposition method, the present paper explains the digital divide between disadvantaged and other caste groups. • We find that there is a considerable first level and second level digital divide between the disadvantaged caste groups and Others in India. • The caste-based digital divide is largely explained by the differences in education and income between the caste groups. • The study foregrounds the importance of bridging the caste-based digital gap by closing the gap between the educational attainments of the disadvantaged and other caste groups. With the increasing importance of information and communication technologies in access to basic services like education and health, the question of digital divide based on caste assumes importance in India where large socioeconomic disparities persist between different caste groups. Studies on caste-based digital inequality are still scanty in India. Using nationally representative survey data, this paper analyzes the first-level digital divide (ownership of computer and access to the Internet) and the second-level digital divide (individuals skills to use computer and the Internet) between the disadvantaged caste groups and Others. Further, this paper identifies the caste-based differences in socioeconomic factors that contribute to the digital divide between these groups using a non-linear decomposition method. The results show that there exists large first-level and second-level digital divide between the disadvantaged caste groups and Others in India. The non-linear decomposition results indicate that caste-based digital divide in India is rooted in historical socioeconomic deprivation of disadvantaged caste groups. More than half of the caste-based digital gap is attributable to differences in educational attainment and income between the disadvantaged caste groups and Others. Findings of this study highlight the urgent need for addressing educational and income inequality between the different caste groups in India in order to bridge the digital divide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing upon long term fieldwork conducted in the coalfields of eastern India, the paper argues for the formation of multiple, fragmented and hierarchical 'classes of labour' in the 'new public sector' coal mines of India. Employing an intersectional lens, it shows that the organisation of 'classes of labour' is greatly dependent upon the differentiated negotiating powers for compensatory employments linked to pre-existing land and other social relations shaping up as 'politics of incorporation' in mining jobs. It demonstrates the exacerbation of socio-economic inequalities between dalits, women and dominant caste and class communities in the dispossession process of open-cast coal mining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) women in India have relatively lower usage of period products than women of the General category. This paper attempts to understand and uncover the social factors explaining inequalities in the period product usage among these groups. This paper uses data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), conducted in 2019–21, for this study, with a sample of 49,136 SC, 44,392 ST, and 41,045 General caste women in the age group of 15 to 24 years. Using the Fairlie decomposition method, we explain the inequalities in the period product usage between SC, ST, and general categories. Differences in wealth index (SC-Gen: 49.54%; ST-Gen: 46.6%), respondent's education level (SC-Gen: 22.85%; ST-Gen: 17.3%), watching television (SC-Gen: 09.44%; ST-Gen: 10.1%), reading newspaper (SC-Gen: 08.71%; ST-Gen: 05.09%), and toilet facility (SC-Gen: 06.36%; ST-Gen: 03.05%) account for a large portion of the gap in the period product usage among these groups. Government, policymakers, and NGOs should focus on creating comprehensive menstrual health and hygiene (MHH) programmes, including educational programmes and mass media campaigns, while increasing focus on disadvantaged communities, viz. SCs and STs to make the necessary nudge for girls and women to adopt hygienic menstrual practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the drivers and impacts of degradation of agricultural land in a village in a South Indian coastal delta. Drawing on insights from political economy and political ecology scholarship, it argues that there is a dialectical relation between land degradation and social inequalities, i.e. the biophysical degeneration of land is not only caused by human and environmental factors but it also generates social contradictions which further intensify both land degradation and social inequalities. The paper demonstrates, firstly, that coastal land degradation has been generated in the form of soil salinity through a confluence of the inherent environmental vulnerabilities of the region, forces of commoditization (especially those associated with shrimp aquaculture), existing social hierarchies and state policy. Secondly, it shows that social groups differentiated by caste, class and gender have experienced these changes differently. A small, relatively well-off section of the locally dominant caste landowners has benefitted from shifting from paddy to shrimp aquaculture, which is leading to a further increase in salinisation. Others have to bear the brunt of decreasing productivity of land for crop cultivation, leading them to abandon or reduce cultivation and increase dependence on non-agricultural sources of income, especially through male outmigration. Women's burden of work has increased while their capacity to earn wage-income has declined. Without any concerted state effort to either restore the land or to alleviate the widespread agrarian distress, land degradation has developed into a continuously evolving downward spiral, but one where there will still be some winners and many losers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to empirically examine the inequality perpetuated through social categories in accessing the social capital generated through the microfinance interventions in India as the country has pronounced economic inequality by social categories like many developing stratified societies. Design/methodology/approach: The study uses survey data collected from 75 villages in rural India and tests whether the formation and maximization of social capital through self-help groups (SHGs) is dominated by social categories, e.g. high-caste groups, males and superior occupation classes. Using logistic regression framework, the study assesses the formation and maximization of social capital through multiple SHG membership. Findings: The paper finds that the microfinance approach of empowering weaker sections is considerably limited in its success, in the sense that it provides them with the opportunity to the credit access and support through SHGs. But, the empirical model further indicates that social capital in form of these SHGs may fall prey to the dominant social categories, and thus, these institutions may potentially enhance inequality. Research limitations/implications: The paper is derived from the secondary data set, so it is unable to comment field reality qualitatively. Practical implications: Microfinance policy makers will have an improved understanding of inherent social inequalities while implementing group-based programs in socially stratified societies. Originality/value: Social capital, if treated as an outcome accumulated in form of groups, provides with an important framework to assess the unequal access through the microfinance interventions. Overlooking the inherent unequal access will deceive the purpose of social justice in the group-based interventions. The microfinance and other welfare policies engaged in group formation and generating the social capital need to be more sensitive to the disadvantageous sections while focusing on multiple group access by disadvantaged social groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural transformation in most currently developing countries takes the form of a rapid rise in services but limited industrialization. In this paper, we propose a new methodology to structurally estimate productivity growth in service industries that circumvents the notorious difficulties in measuring quality improvements. In our theory, the expansion of the service sector is both a consequence—due to income effects—and a cause—due to productivity growth—of the development process. We estimate the model using Indian household data. We find that productivity growth in nontradable consumer services such as retail, restaurants, or residential real estate was an important driver of structural transformation and rising living standards between 1987 and 2011. However, the welfare gains were heavily skewed toward high‐income urban dwellers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent increases in automation and unemployment have aggravated income inequality in India. Thus, it is imperative for policy-makers to cut down on inequality and unemployment while promoting planned automation. This paper proposes a joint solution to reform India's taxation framework to fight income inequality while promoting planned automation. The paper finds that the current tax policies are severely increasing income inequality in India, and this, in turn, has lead to alarming consumption and economic slowdown in key industries. Unable to encourage the demand side, industries have responded by cutting down labour costs. This has created an inequality trap. To bring India out of this trap, it is imperative that India moves ahead with taxing concentrated capital and invests in re-skilling. Further, India also must give effect to Baumol's cost disease insight and create new job opportunities for the rural youth, which is at the highest risk of unemployment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses residential segregation over time in Indian cities. We examine the change in caste-based segregation longitudinally, while exploring how caste dynamics manifest differently across city size and region. The paper uses successive rounds of decennial census data, from 2001 and 2011. Contrary to expectations, we find residential segregation by caste/tribe persisting or worsening in 60 per cent of cities in our all-India sample, with differences by region and city size. For example, in the states of Karnataka, Haryana, Punjab and Tamil Nadu, a majority of cities experienced decreasing levels of residential segregation by caste/tribe, while in Maharashtra and Gujarat, 34 and 29 per cent of cities, respectively, experienced an increase. A greater proportion of small cities (population 20,000–49,999) than large cities (100,000–999,999) experienced an increase in residential segregation between 2001 and 2011. Across all city-size categories, the dominant trend has been no improvement in residential segregation by caste/tribe over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic lockdown introduced to break the chain of disease transmission brought numerous challenges to people living with Type 2 diabetes. The present paper attempts to explore and understand the challenges faced by people living with diabetes and the variation in experiences based on their socioeconomic context. This qualitative study was conducted during the pandemic’s first and second waves in rural areas of West Jaintia Hills District, predominantly inhabited by the Pnar tribe. In-depth interviews with 90 Pnar men and women living with diabetes were undertaken. Findings from the present study reveal the perception that COVID-19 is not severe, limited knowledge about complications of diabetes, and impact of the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, multiply to increase the vulnerability of the tribal populations living in the hilly and difficult terrain of the district. Therefore, addressing the burden of chronic illnesses in rural tribal areas in times of emerging infectious pandemics by providing comprehensive care and services at public health facilities is the need of the hour. The COVID-19 pandemic lockdown introduced to break the chain of disease transmission brought numerous challenges to people living with Type 2 diabetes. The present paper attempts to explore and understand the challenges faced by people living with diabetes and the variation in experiences based on their socioeconomic context. This qualitative study was conducted during the pandemic’s first and second waves in rural areas of West Jaintia Hills District, predominantly inhabited by the Pnar tribe. In-depth interviews with 90 Pnar men and women living with diabetes were undertaken. Findings from the present study reveal the perception that COVID-19 is not severe, limited knowledge about complications of diabetes, and impact of the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, multiply to increase the vulnerability of the tribal populations living in the hilly and difficult terrain of the district. Therefore, addressing the burden of chronic illnesses in rural tribal areas in times of emerging infectious pandemics by providing comprehensive care and services at public health facilities is the need of the hour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the impact of climate shocks, measured as temperature and precipitation variability, on real monthly per capita consumption expenditure of Indian households over the 1988–2012 period, utilising data from the National Sample Survey Organisation's Consumer Expenditure Surveys. The regression results show an increase in consumption by 1.2 per cent on average, in response to a one standard deviation rise in temperature, with heterogeneous impacts across economic sectors. While agricultural and industrial households experience consumption declines of 1.7 per cent and 8.3 per cent on average, service sector households exhibit consumption increases by 2.4–9.6 per cent on average across rural and urban regions, in response to a one standard deviation rise in temperature. The analysis suggests an increase in inequality of consumption across sectors due to climatic shocks, with implications for climate policy and sustainable development in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper aims to analyses the relationship between educational expansion and schooling inequality in India across states and over the age cohort. The focus of the paper is to verify the inverted-U shaped relationship between the mean and dispersion of schooling. The evidence of an inverted-U shaped relationship between the mean and dispersion of schooling is found when dispersion is measured in terms of standard deviation which indicates that as the average level of schooling increases, educational inequality first increases, and, after reaching a peak, starts declining in latter phases of educational expansion. The turning point occurs when average year of schooling is about 7 years. The same inverted-U shaped relation is not observed when inequality in schooling is measured in terms of Gini-coefficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to major learning about the social and economic losses that an external shock to the system can cause. In this paper, we examine some sustainability issues focusing on three key focal points of sustainable development – economic growth, poverty and inequality in the context of climate change. We focus on the inter-relationship between economic growth, investment, labour force participation, energy consumption, poverty and inequality under alternative scenarios using the global framing of Shared Socio-Economic Pathways (SSPs). An econometric model is used for estimating the relationship between GDP and its determinants along with fitting a General Quadratic and/or Beta Lorenz curve using the World Bank's Povcal software for determining the relationship between income, poverty and inequality. Alternative GDP growth paths, redistribution assumptions and poverty lines are used for simulations which reveal the extent of sensitivity of the developmental targets to scenarios up to 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies educational aspirations and grade achievements of teenagers in India, using Structural Equation Modelling with data from the Young Lives Study. The analysis differentiates direct effects of relevant socio-economic and individual characteristics on educational output from indirect effects through aspirations. In this sample, some student characteristics – parents' education, mothers' caste and the student's gender – have no direct effect on educational output, but an indirect effect on educational aspirations going through abilities. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds, and in particular girls, are at a disadvantage at age 12 because they have accumulated lower cognitive abilities. Abilities shape aspirations, which then impact educational output beyond the mere effect of abilities. Girls are at a double disadvantage: besides lower average skills at age 12, they developed lower aspirations than boys of the same characteristics. The economic situation of the household was neither directly nor indirectly related with students' achievements in school. These results help distinguish aspirations as drivers of behaviour from aspirations as correlates of other characteristics, and they have relevant policy implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taking from, and critiquing, both the scholarship on the Indian "middle class" as well as the scholarship on the 'labour aristocracy', this paper argues for the reformulation of the Indian "middle class" as a labour aristocracy or worker elite. We define the distinctive characteristics that set the Indian worker elite apart from the broader working class and highlight, through the case studies of international migration, patterns in urban living spaces and domestic service employment, the stark differences between the worker elite and the poor working masses in India, and the exploitative relationship that exists between the two. The analysis points to the semi-periphery being the locus of the largest inequalities in the capitalist world-system today, where the bourgeoisie and the worker elite both gain tremendously from the exploitation inherent to capitalism. Resultingly, the task at hand in India and the semi-periphery broadly remains to organize the poor, marginalised working masses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The study aims to understand how various channels of financial sector development affect the income inequality across Indian states and whether the inequality widening or narrowing hypothesis of financial development may be confirmed at a sub-national level. Design/methodology/approach: Using state-wise annual data for the period from 1999-2000 to 2011-2012, a panel data analysis using generalised method of moments (GMM) estimator is conducted for a sample of 15 major Indian states. Findings: The results confirm the inequality widening hypothesis of financial sector development in India. While each channel affects different section of the population in a different way, their overall effect on the income inequality remains unfavourable. Originality/value: This paper is the first ever study to provide a comparative empirical evidence for the effect of each channel of financial development on the income inequality in India. The results provide significant insights to the policymakers, practitioners and academia in the financial sector with respect to the efficiency of each channel of financial development in bridging the gap between the poor and rich. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The state of being male or female especially when considered with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones is called gender. Education seeks to nourish the good qualities and draw out the best in an individual. Gender inequality in education refers to the inequality in education between females and males. The paper aims to examine the gender inequality in literacy rate, Never Att ended Rate (NAR) and investigate the impact of gender inequality in education on economic development in India. To examine the gender inequality in literacy rate across India, gender gap in literacy rate is examined for the period 1991-2011 using secondary data. To examine the gender inequality in NAR for the different age groups i.e. 7-14, 15-19, 2-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-59, 60+ and ANS (Age not stated), gender gap of NAR for 2011 is examined using secondary data. Using a regression model, the paper investigate the impact of gender inequality in education on economic development in India. For the purpose, secondary data for Human Development Index of 2015 for different states and Union Territories (UTs) and gender parity index of literacy rate for the year 2011 of different states and UTs are used. The study finds that gender inequality in literacy rate where females lag behind males exist in India as a whole and in all its states and UTs. It is also found that male NAR is lower than female NAR in all the age groups in India as a whole and in almost all the States and UTs. The regression result reveals that gender inequality in education has a negative impact on economic development in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on everyday watery relations; children and young people's fluid, messy, affective encounters with the rainy season in India. We attend to the rhythms, depths, capacities and flows of water and argue that a more nuanced understanding of watery entanglements is needed in the context of fluid inequality. Through in-depth, ethnographic research with children and young people, we offer new ways of thinking about watery relations and inequality attending to the material-social-spatial–temporal complexities of living with the monsoon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "alternative", "atypical" or "informal" workforce has grown in developed and developing countries alike. One of the more recent evolutions of informal employment has been of informal employment within formal enterprises. In the interest of flexibility and cost‐reduction, many formal firms increasingly resort to hiring workers on a temporary or informal basis. Alongside, and perhaps, as a result of the persistence and pervasiveness of informal employment, issues relating to inequality have come to the fore. This paper is motivated by these two intertwining aspects of Indian labor market—informality and wage inequality. Using nationally representative sample data, the paper examines trends in wage inequality among various forms of informal workers, overlaying these findings with broader trends in inequality. Using a regression based inequality decomposition, the paper compares the sources of wage inequality across different employment groups and the reasons for differences in wage inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the economic policies adopted by the Indian government under different policy regimes, provides a political economy perspective of economic growth in the country during 1950–2020 and examines the inclusiveness of the rapid economic growth in recent decades. The growth performance of the economy improved as the economy moved from inward-looking policy regime to the regimes of pro-business and pro-market policies. India's political economy was supportive of the changes in policy regime. After growing at a sluggish rate during the first three decades after 1950–1951, the gross domestic product (GDP) growth accelerated significantly after the pro-business reforms in the 1980s, and there was further acceleration after the pro-market reforms since 1991–1992. It has, however, slowed down in recent years. Nevertheless, it has not been inclusive, as the benefits of growth have not reached all sections of the population and all regions of the country equally. On the contrary, disparities in income across regions and inequalities in income, wealth and consumption among individuals have exacerbated, and the problems of unemployment and poverty have been persisting in the economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the last two decades, cesarean section (CS) deliveries in India have increased by six-fold and created economic hardship for families and households. Although several schemes and policies under the National Health Mission (NHM) have reduced the inequality in the use of maternal care services in India, the distributive effect of public health subsidies on CS deliveries remains unclear. In this context, this paper examines the usage patterns of CS delivery and estimates the share of public health subsidies on CS deliveries among mothers by different background characteristics in India.Data: Data from the fourth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) was used for the study. Out-of-pocket (OOP) payment for CS delivery was used as a dependent variable and was analyzed by level of care that is, primary (PHC, UHC, other) and secondary (government/municipal, rural hospital). Descriptive statistics, binary logistic regression, benefit incidence analysis, concentration curve and concentration index were used for the analysis.Results: A strong economic gradient was observed in the utilization of CS delivery from public health facilities. Among mothers using any public health facility, 23% from the richest quintile did not pay for CS delivery compared to 13% from the poorest quintile. The use of the public subsidy among mothers using any type of public health facility for CS delivery was pro-rich in nature; 9% in the poorest quintile, 16.1% in the poorer, 24.5% in the middle, 27.5% among richer and 23% in the richest quintile. The pattern of utilization and distribution of public subsidy was similar across the primary and secondary health facilities but the magnitude varied. The findings from the benefit-incidence analysis are supported by those obtained from the inequality analysis. The concentration index of CS was 0.124 for public health centers and 0.291 for private health centers. The extent of inequality in the use of CS delivery in public health centers was highest in the state of Mizoram (0.436), followed by Assam (0.336), and the lowest in Tamil Nadu (0.060), followed by Kerala (0.066).Conclusion: The utilization of CS services from public health centers in India is pro-rich. Periodically monitoring and evaluating of the cash incentive schemes for CS delivery and generating awareness among the poor would increase the use of CS delivery services in public health centers and reduce the inequality in CS delivery in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caste is a unique marker of social stratification in India. There are significant eco- nomic inequalities and considerable disparities in educational achievements between historically disadvantaged caste groups and Others. Unequal investments in their chil- dren's human capital by caste can perpetuate income inequalities and reproduce class differences between caste groups. This paper analyses caste-based disparities in house- hold expenditure on children's school education using nationally representative social expenditure data on education from 2007–08 and 2017–18 in India. The paper uses a recentered influence function (RIF) based decomposition analysis to pinpoint the key factors underpinning the disparity in private educational expenditure between disadvantaged caste groups and Others. Further, to overcome the problem of heterogeneity of data the study also employs propensity score matching (PSM) as robustness check for the decomposition analysis. The findings from decomposition and matching approaches reveal that differences in endowments, specifically income differences, between caste groups explain most of the caste-based gap in children's human capital investments. The study has implications for public policy to address educational and economic disparities between disadvantaged caste groups (ST, SC and OBC) and Others in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Though Indian economy since 1980s has expanded very rapidly, yet the benefits of growth remain very unequally distributed. The purpose of this paper is to provide new evidence about the shape, intensity and decomposition of inequality change between 2005 and 2012. The authors find that Gini, as a measure of income inequality, has increased irrespective of geographic regions. Design/methodology/approach: Based on a recent distribution analysis tool, "ABG," the paper focuses on local inequality, and summarizes the shape of inequality in terms of three inequality parameters (α, β and γ) to examine how the income distributions have changed over time. Here, the central coefficient (α) measures inequality at the median level, with adjustment parameters at the top (β) and bottom (γ). Findings: The results reveal that at the middle of distribution (α), there is almost the same inequality in both the periods, but the coefficients on the curvature parameters β and γ show that there is increasing inequality in the subsequent period. Finally, an analysis of decomposition of inequality change suggests that though income growth was progressive, however, this equalizing effect was more than offset by the disequalizing effect of income reranking. Research limitations/implications: This paper shows how it can be possible both for "the poor" to fare badly relatively to "the rich" and for income growth to be pro-poor. Practical implications: This paper stresses the significance of inequality reduction. Social implications: Inequality reduction is very much imperative in ending poverty and boosting shared prosperity. Originality/value: Perhaps, this research work is first of its kind to examine the shape and decomposition of change in income inequality in India in recent years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to demystify and deconstruct the current Smart Cities craze in India. It does so by refusing to be distracted by the discourses of the Smart Cities idea in general and of the Smart Cities Mission of the Government of India in particular. It focuses instead on the privatized physical spaces of urban inequality in India, specifically gated neighbourhoods and integrated townships. It argues that just as these privatized spaces have increased in size and complexity over time, their corresponding legitimizing ideologies have also evolved and become more sophisticated, to finally give birth to their newest avatar – Smart Cities. Seen in this light, Smart Cities appear less as a novel idea floated to guide the sustainable development of our future cities, and more as an ideological cover for the ongoing processes of neoliberal urbanization. The paper buttresses these arguments with an analysis of the design process of integrated township projects that I have been involved in, comparing the essential characteristics of these projects with the operational aspects and components of the Smart Cities Mission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing economies like India, China, and various African nations have increasingly been looking at foreign direct investment (FDI) flows as a source of economic growth, raising per capita income, reducing unemployment, and thus finally alleviating poverty. However, the positive impact of such openness remains a matter of debate. Hence, this paper aims to ascertain whether FDI flows play a role in reducing depth as well as intensity of poverty using time series data spanning from 1981-2012 for India. The regression analysis reveals that increased FDI inflows are associated with a lower poverty count, in both the measures that are Headcount Poverty as well as Poverty Gap. In the second model of (OLS), agricultural incomes seem to elevate households out of poverty but fail to bridge the divide between the incomes of the people below poverty line and the average incomes. Thus, the study suggests that bringing more FDI flows is no perfect recipe for alleviating poverty, but it can have a positive impact on poverty reduction, provided that desired mechanisms are in place in the host country to have these positive effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we analyse the education and wage gaps between Hindus and Muslims over the period 1983 to 2011–2012 in India. We find that Muslims are worse off than Hindus in terms of education and this disadvantage has increased over time. Our analysis shows that the wage gap is more pronounced at the higher end of the wage distribution which we interpret as a glass ceiling effect. We find that the wage gap has increased over time and the increase is more pronounced at the upper quantiles. Our decomposition analysis shows that difference in education has a significant contribution to the Hindu-Muslim wage gap. We find that the Hindu-Muslim gaps are more pronounced in urban areas relative to rural areas. Comparing Muslims with different Hindu castes, we find that while the disadvantaged castes have improved their condition relative to Muslims over time, the condition of Muslims relative to the advantaged castes has worsened. Dividing the sample into younger (aged 16–35) and older (36–65) cohorts, we find that the Hindu-Muslim gap in education is more acute in the younger cohort while the Hindu-Muslim wage gap is more pronounced for the older cohort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- The purpose of this paper is to examine the transformative potential of a school-based model in India that makes middle class students active stakeholders in the well-being of underprivileged children. Design/methodology/approach -- Employing a qualitative case study method, data were collected through a survey -- containing close-ended and open-ended questions -- that was administered to all students in grades 6 through 10. Findings -- Overall, the data suggest that socialization with underprivileged children had a profound impact on the views of middle class children about social inequalities and their own agency in addressing them. While younger children observed more manifest differences between them and the poor children they engaged; the older children articulated those differences in terms of inequalities of opportunity and violations of rights. Research limitations/implications -- The research was based on a single school where the intervention was conceived and implement by its visionary leader. It would be important to examine the robustness of the model in a broader sample of schools. Social implications -- The study demonstrates that with purposive strategies and intentional organizational culture, schools for privileged can promote social inclusion of all children. Originality/value -- This paper makes the counter-intuitive case -- analytically and empirically -- that for social policies designed for poor children to be a force for social transformation, they should be purposively conceived in conjunction with the educational and developmental imperatives of children from more privileged backgrounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the mechanisms through which democratic urban polities produce, maintain and reproduce inequality. It does so by looking at case law from 1990–2007 in New Delhi, where a seemingly relentless series of evictions of poor illegal settlements (colloquially known as bastis) were ordered by the Delhi High Court and the Supreme Court of India in Public Interest Litigations (PILs). While the power of the claims of the “middle class” and the emergence of a new urban political economy are well documented in the analysis of evictions, the specificity of how subaltern urban residents have been displaced from a development imagination remains relatively understudied. Put simply: how have the claims, presence and resistance of a significant proportion of urban residents been managed and even evaded within urban politics? This paper argues that case law on evictions makes visible not only the claims to the city of an insurgent urban elite but also the simultaneous “impoverishment of poverty”, which together create a new calculus for the contestations of urban citizenship in contemporary Delhi. This impoverishment is marked by a reduction in the efficacy of poverty and vulnerability as the basis of claims made by subaltern citizens to the elements of citizenship, i.e. the determination and distribution of rights and needs, access to resources and entitlements as well as a place within narratives of belonging and personhood. Making visible the multiple and particular processes of impoverishment is a critical part of a praxis that seeks to formulate effective resistance and imagine different urban futures. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The affirmative action policy for socially and economically backward communities in employment has been a debated issue in India. In this context, this paper aims to analyze the level of inequality by distinguishing between ‘circumstance’ and ‘effort’ factors in the Roemer’s framework on equality of opportunity. We measure inequality of opportunities due to two circumstances: caste and religion. Our empirical analysis, at state-level, utilizes a recent household survey data, which provides information related to efforts as well as circumstances of workers. The paper estimated inequality in the labour market and then decomposed it to know the circumstances that cause income inequality. Our estimates indicated that inequality and inequality of opportunity is substantially higher in India. Specifically, the outcome of our analysis evidently indicated that the socially backward communities do have economically disadvantageous position in some of the Indian states. However, the degree of circumstances based on inequality varies to a great extent among the states. Therefore, we suggest that the country does not need a nation-level affirmative action policy instead a state-level policy could be more appropriate as the intensity of the problem differ significantly among the Indian states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose This paper aims to deal with a closer look into the nature and extent of consumer expenditure inequality in India to identify the major contributions those are embedded, particularly after the economic reforms. Relative contributions of major consumption items/sources to the overall expenditure inequality are quantitatively examined in terms of a decomposition exercise. Eventually, the paper investigates the relative marginal effects of expenditure components/sources on overall inequality.Design/methodology/approach Gini index is used to measure the degree of inequality in consumer expenditure. Contribution of each expenditure sources to overall inequality is estimated by using source decomposition technique of Gini index contributed by Lerman and Yitzhaki.Findings The study observes that the inequality in consumer expenditure has increased in both the rural and the urban parts of India during the post-reform period. Non-food expenditure is more unevenly distributed, and it has been found to be more pro-rich in nature. Expenditure on cereals and pulses still exhibits higher inequality-reducing effect in rural and urban India. Education and health-care expenses have been inequality-increasing in the country. Contribution of expenditure on miscellaneous consumer services, durable goods, education and health care to the overall expenditure inequality is significantly higher.Originality/value The study identifies the capacity of different expenditure sources towards increasing or decreasing the overall inequality which is crucial for better redistributive policies to be adopted to enhance the well-being of the economy in real sense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the role played by socio-religious categories in determining primary cooking fuel choices among Indian households. We study this role in the broader context of climbing up the energy ladder. Our estimates based on a sample of 601,509 households and using multinomial probit regression suggest that socio-religious status along with economic status is critical in the choice of modern eco-friendly fuels. We find that belonging to a marginalized community in Hindu religion significantly dampens a households' likelihood to move up the ladder when compared with upper caste households. While intra-religion differences among Hindu castes in terms of their probability of using modern fuels are wider, differences among Muslims appear smaller. Also, though Muslims perform worse than Hindu upper castes in terms of probability of using modern fuels they are much better off in comparison with other Hindu castes. Our results remain robust to alternative specifications and several robustness checks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women's participation and representation in politics at the state level is considered important for gender equality and women's empowerment, but their participation in politics on equal footing with men, remains a distant dream. In this research, an effort has been made to combine gender and politics in terms of a cross-national study to explore the status of women in politics and explore the factors that led them to raise voice against patriarchal society. It is difficult for women to survive with equal rights in that society where religious, economic, and patriarchal mindsets are the main factors that hinder women from actively participating in politics. Women are facing violence and discrimination in politics because maledominated societies have institutionalized and created a mechanism that is against women's rights such as structural, ideological, and functional in politics which have strengthened gender inequality. The descriptive method has been used in this paper to find out women's low participation in the politics of India and Pakistan. The facilitator model is used to identify the patterns of societal as well as structural factors in politics, which prevent and restrict the full participation of women in politics. Findings suggest that the patriarchal and gender-stratified structures govern the society and the women of both countries face violence, but the nature of violence is different in each case. In India, there has been political discrimination against women based on the caste system, and in Pakistan, feudal structures are the main causes of women's low participation in politics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid growth in large emerging economies has been spread unequally across their regions leading to growing income disparities. This paper examines the distribution of regional output per capita and the evolution of its shape in Brazil, China, India, and Russia from the mid-1990s to the mid-2010s. A comparative analysis of convergence is conducted using a nonparametric methodology. The results reveal different distribution dynamics across the four economies. Chinese regions with below-median output per capita have the highest probability of transitioning toward higher-income levels, while their Brazilian counterparts are trapped at the bottom of the distribution. Although India has the lowest and Russia one of the highest regional income inequalities, they display similar divergence patterns exemplified by high persistence at both ends of the distribution. Our findings indicate that government spending and the rule of law are the major driving forces behind regional convergence, except in Russia where they have the opposite effect. Innovation and property rights also promote convergence in China, but cause regional divergence in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the literature on development studies, the state of Kerala in India is known for its high human and social development despite its low-income status. However, there has been a turnaround in its growth performance and has now come to occupy a high rank in terms of per capita income among Indian States. This has been largely through a high growth performance facilitated by significant remittances from abroad. However, there have not been consistent time-series data on annual remittances. This paper is an attempt to fulfil this gap by estimating foreign remittances to Kerala for a period of 47 years that is close to half a century. Using these data, the paper has presented a Modified State Income for Kerala and calculated its impact on consumption and savings. The significance of the sizeable emigration to the labour market situation has also been highlighted. Given the fact that remittances come as household income confined to a small segment of the total households, the impact of annual remittances on income and consumption inequality has also been highlighted. The results show an increasing trend in inequality. Despite a high growth performance aided by remittances, Kerala has not been able to address its longstanding problem of educated unemployment, especially for its women. In this context, the state's inability to take advantage of the enhanced per capita income to maintain its tax–income ratio, let alone enhance it, assumes great significance as an area of concern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tries to understand the nature and extent of inequality across states of India with special reference to Bihar. The study is based on secondary data collected from various sources, including NSSO, NFHS and other government/non-government documents and reports. The study analyzes inequalities under four themes: livelihood, education, health and gender. The analysis finds that, however, some positive changes can be seen in terms of enrolment in case of primary education, but still, productivity of education is the lowest in Bihar. The state government has invested money in attracting students to government schools, but because of a low per capita expenditure on education, access to facilities like computers in schools is the lowest in Bihar. In the case of health expenditure, the people of Bihar have to bear significantly higher per capita out of pocket expenditure. Though, Bihar has achieved higher growth in the last couple of years but the level of female empowerment is still very low in the state. Thus, this study finds that Bihar is still at lowest position in all four themes across states of India and, people of this state are facing grim challenges related to livelihood, quality education and health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2020 editor-in-chief (Andrew Malekoff) issued a special call for papers for group work stories on pandemic 2020. Among the 28 stories accepted for the series there were 16 from India, 9 from the United States, 2 from Canada and 1 from Israel. General submissions from the U.S., Canada and Israel were typical for the journal. Atypical are submissions from India. Rather than publish the stories in one special issue of the Journal, he decided to spread them out over several issues through 2022. In the course of organizing the special series (with a December 2021 deadline) he continued communication with a few of the authors from India, with particular interest and concern in the deteriorating situation as 2021 unfolded. Although the present commentary is not about group work per se, it is an update by Ajay Saini, Nancy and Andrew Malekoff on the current state of affairs in India, with some contrast to the situation in the U.S., that offers continuing context for the stories in the series. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although it is commonly believed that higher exports results in higher GDP, theoretically, the impact of international trade on poverty reduction is ambiguous. To resolve this ambiguity, this paper aims to examine the impact of India's exports intensity on poverty outcomes. With poverty as a focal point, the international trade in India is examined together with a wide range of macro variables in order to trace down the poverty-reducing impact of trade. Using a case study approach, time series data on India is taken for the postglobalization period of 1990-2012. The key dependent variable is poverty, which is measured as poverty headcount as wells as poverty gap. The model is regressed using classical Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) as well as system Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) estimator in order to control endogeneity and reverse causality in the model. The results using basic OLS regression state that poverty reduces as exports increases. When the model is tested using the GMM approach, the empirical results do not show any significant relationship between poverty and exports for the basic model. However, when interaction terms of control variables are brought in the model, the results change. The results thus suggest that globalized trade of goods may be an engine for poverty reduction in India, when it is complemented with the right domestic policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women play critical roles in agricultural operations in many developing countries, yet they have limited ownership and de facto control over agricultural lands. Literature shows that insecure land rights constrain women's economic prospects and make them vulnerable to poverty and violence. Despite initiating women-friendly amendments in existing polices in India, the situation has remained unresponsive. Clearly, the existing patriarchal mind-set, cultural and social ethos have imposed restrictions on women land ownership. For deriving important policy pointers, ground realities on land distribution and existing iniquities is required which is lacking in available databases. In this context, the paper aims to reinforce with evidence the bias against women in land rights at different stages so that policy can be rethought in new ways. The analysis is based on sex-disaggregated data extracted from nearly 16,000 original digital copies of land records for 12 States/Union Territories (UTs) in rural India, a first of its kind of exercise. Our results show that just having a title won't resolve the bigger challenge of different levels of inequities that women still face when they own the land in terms of limited access to single land titles, lower shares, smaller size and inferior quality of land holdings. We also analyse the extent to which the States laws and provisions related to women land rights have controlled these biases, for which State-wise laws/ provisions were reviewed. We find mixed impacts of these provisions with significant variations across States, the reasons being lack of proper implementation and prevailing social attitudes/ customs. Finally, while emphasising the need to start rethinking and reinforcing these laws and provisions in a new way, the paper suggests feasible steps in this direction. • The paper reinforces with evidence the bias against women in land titles so that policy can be rethought in new ways. • It's the first of its kind of analysis where digital copies of the land records were examined to show ground realities. • Even as landowners women face discrimination with limited access to single titles, smaller land size and inferior quality. • Lack of proper implementation, social attitudes, and customs have restricted the impacts of provisions in some states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the post-Green Revolution era, numerous improved wheat varieties were released and disseminated to enhance tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses and increase productivity. Still, in the wheat-based farming systems of the Global South, gender-based and other social inequalities continue to undermine equitable access to improved varieties, especially for women, poor, and marginalized farmers. Here, we present a case for gender-sensitive technology development, dissemination, and evaluation as part of wheat varietal improvement programs. We take stock of the various challenges that persist in the uptake of modern wheat varieties by male and female smallholders. We focus on Ethiopia and India, two geographies with substantive wheat economies, widespread poverty, and gender inequalities. The socio-economic literature on wheat is relatively thin with limited and dated gender-sensitive evaluation studies on varietal technologies in these countries. Varietal technology evaluations could ideally cover gender differences in relation to wheat varietal trait preferences, technology adoption, and associated decision-making and labor-use changes related to new varieties and complementary technologies, as well as nutritional and economic benefits. The paper calls for a need to change the institutional arrangements in wheat research-and-development (R&D) programs to understand and pursue better paths for wheat improvement to proactively contribute toward gender equity and inclusivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a comparative analysis between the media of India and South Africa, two emerging regional economic powerhouses and emerging democracies. The analysis is macro. The paper describes and analyzes media content and journalism practices in each country and how Indian and South African media have given limited attention to the deep divisions—centered around class, gender, race, and caste—which mark day-to-day life in each society. Consequently, we conclude, that delegative democracy, characterized by the exclusion of the voices of the poor and marginalized, is perpetuated by a globalized, liberalized, and privatized media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Andhra Pradesh Zero Budget Natural Farming project was implemented by India's State of Andhra Pradesh in 2016 and renamed AP Community Managed Natural Farming (APCNF) in 2020. APCNF is recognised as a sucessful example of peasant-led agroecology by social movements, multilateral UN bodies, governments, and researchers. We offer more critical perspectives here, and argue that this agroecology model deepens inequality and dispossession. Despite claims to the contrary, APCNF is locked in an unchanged productivist paradigm controlled by capital in collaboration with the state. By co-opting agroecology, APCNF closes down options for a just transformation of the dominant agri-food regime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an attempt to assess India's performance in generating the required quantity and quality of employment for its growing population since independence in 1947. But the exercise is set in a longer period that covers India's population growth since the turn of the twentieth century (1901) in relation to its ability to generate employment. The half-a-century preceding independence, despite a slow population growth, was a disaster in generating employment and any signs of structural change. Detailed analysis of the issue since independence shows that there was indeed a demographic burden more than the world average as well as its comparator Asian countries such as China and Indonesia. While employment generation with reference to growth—employment elasticity—was quite impressive during the first four decades of independence, it almost collapsed ever since the adoption of neoliberal economic reforms in 1991, thus entering a phase of 'jobless growth', a phenomenon that is shared by China in a more vigorous form. This has led to what may be called an exclusion of working age people from not just employment but from labour force indicating the emergence of 'discouraged workers' in a larger set that we called underutilized labour. But what about those who are included in the workforce? Does it ensure an escape from poverty for those at the bottom? Our estimates show that the pace of reduction in the incidence of poverty is so slow that a significant share of households is still below the international definition of extreme poverty. We attribute this to the quality of employment characterized by a high incidence of informal sector employment as well as low wages measured by the share of workers not receiving a recommended subsistence wage. The absence of any kind of social security to an overwhelming share of workers adds to this situation of absolute poverty. Finally we examine the question of poverty from the point of manifold inequalities by dividing the households in the economy in terms of their employment, educational, rural–urban, and social group statuses for estimating predicted probability of being poor. The results bring into sharp focus the huge variation in predicted probability that shows households with low education, disadvantaged social group status, casual nature of employment, and living in rural areas at the bottom end of the scale. These results bring out the imperative for creating more employment with better quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence for three decades or more indicates that wage inequality has consistently increased in most labour market segments in India. This paper focuses on how informalisation, migration, segmentation, and social discrimination, which operate most significantly at the lower end of the labour market, have contributed to well-being deficits and rising labour market inequality. There is a large and growing wage gap between formal and informal workers in the organised sector after controlling for other characteristics of the workers. On average, workers who are allocated formal or informal work in the organised sector have very similar characteristics. Across both formal and informal work, while education and experience improves wages, female and low-social-status workers have lower wages, controlling for other characteristics. This paper argues that seasonal and circular labour migrants form a growing segment of the informally employed. Poor and low-caste workers form a disproportionate proportion of such workers. Seasonal/circular migrant workers usually form the lowest rung of labour at organised sector work sites. They are segmented and fragmented by the recruitment process and along lines of caste, sex, ethnicity, language and region. This segmentation and fragmentation creates the basis for capital to acquire low-cost, highly flexible labour, who work long hours and take up the most dangerous work. This paper shows that the process of labour segmentation in Indian labour markets builds on well-entrenched processes of social discrimination but has assumed new forms as the workforce has become more mobile and informalised. Gender-based labour segmentation builds on the culturally determined social reproduction responsibilities of female workers and other socio-cultural factors. This paper concludes that while the above processes are linked to the underlying dynamics of capitalist growth in India, more equitable labour market outcomes at the bottom of the pyramid can be achieved through the provision of suitable social protection, sensible labour market regulation and a more comprehensive anti-discrimination framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose Nearly 200m people in the world experience considerable functioning difficulties. Also, more than three-fourth of the population aged 50 years and over is suffering from some kind of disability in India, China, Ghana, Russia, Mexico and South Africa. Despite the compelling nature of this issue, evidence on socioeconomic disparity in the occurrence of disability is lacking throughout the world and particularly in the aforementioned countries. The purpose of this paper is twofold – first, to examine the socioeconomic inequalities in the prevalence of disability in the selected countries; and second, to investigate the cross-country differentials in the prevalence of disability by socioeconomic characteristics.Design/methodology/approach The authors use data from the Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE) conducted in China, Ghana, India, Mexico, Russia and South Africa during 2007–2010. Disability scores have been constructed using Item Response Theory Partial Credit Model based on eight health and functioning domains. Bivariate analysis, concentration curves, concentration indices and multivariate regressions have been used in the analysis presented in this paper.Findings The authors find that the prevalence of disability varied considerably across sociodemographic groups. Moreover, this variation is not uniform across all countries. Also, age, Sex, work status, years of schooling and economic status emerged out as significant predictors of disability among the studied countries.Originality/value This is perhaps the first study which examines the socioeconomic inequality in disability conceptualized in a comprehensive manner among older adults spread across low to upper middle income countries. The alarming level of prevalence of disability among sociodemographic disadvantage groups calls for immediate attention in terms of detailed study of risk factors, effective policy and timely intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the absence of a universal health insurance mechanism, the increasing burden of out‐of‐pocket (OOP) health expenditure has become a growing concern in India. To cope with the cost of illness, people use either their savings and income, or they have to rely upon distress means of finance such as depletion of household assets, borrowings from banks and moneylenders, and contributions from family and friends. This paper analyses the changes that have taken place in the incidence and covariates of distress financing in India by using data from National Sample Survey Organisation for the years 2004 and 2014. Results indicate that during this period the incidence of distress sources as a means to finance OOP health expenditure has hovered around 50%. Further, the results reveal a significant socioeconomic gradient in the incidence of distress financing. Socioeconomic and health‐related covariates significantly impact the likelihood of distress financing as a means to cope with OOP health expenditure. The results indicate the need for government action to formulate a comprehensive plan through an increase in public spending on health care that will improve the quantity and quality of the public health‐care system and enhance the scope of health insurance in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caste for a long time has determined the educational attainment of an individual belonging to specific castes. But even today, people belonging to lower castes are discriminated against and are not given equal opportunities to attain education. Women and people belonging to the lower caste have been historically denied the access to education and even after 60 years of independence and abolishment of untouchability, the lower caste such as Scheduled Castes, OBCs and Scheduled Tribes lag far behind the Brahmins and other forward castes in educational attainment. This paper shows the disparity that exists in the attainment of education (primary, secondary or higher education) among different castes. Using the India Human Development Survey-II (IHDS-II), 2011-12, the paper tries to show the unequal level of educational attainment of households belonging to different castes. The paper brings out the state-wise analysis of disparity that exists in access to education by different castes and also shows the disparity that exists in access to education between men and women of the same caste. It is evident from the analysis of the IHDS-II (2011-12) dataset that, even after so many years of implementation of reservation policies for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the field of education, disparity still exists among different Castes with a significant gap between them. It is quite clear that the caste hierarchy and stratification is embedded in the Indian society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While studies have investigated inequalities in child nutrition along single axes of social power such as, gender, caste and class, there has not been any study that has examined the intersection of the different axes in determining nutritional outcomes of children. This paper examines the intersection of gender, class and caste in determining children's nutritional outcomes for rural north, rural south and rural India as a whole. The paper investigates the intersectionality of the three axes in rural India and focuses on regional differences. The results show that children with particular disadvantageous group affiliations often find significant compensatory benefits from other beneficial identities. Class inequality dominates caste inequality and caste inequality dominates gender inequality in rural North India for all levels of stunting. In contrast, caste inequality dominates class inequality which in turn dominates gender inequality for severe stunting in rural South India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among countries with comparable levels of income, India has one of the more progressive disability policy frameworks. However, people with disabilities in India are still subject to multiple disadvantages. This paper focuses on state-level variations in outcomes for people with disabilities to provide an explanation for the contrast between the liberal laws on paper and the challenges faced by people with disabilities in practice. Using average monthly per-capita expenditure as an indicator of economic well-being, instrumental-variable Wald estimator results indicate that households with members with disabilities have expenditures that are 14% lower compared with households with able members. This effect is most pronounced among families with male adults and children with disabilities, and in states that are relatively poor, relatively more urban, those that experience extremes in annual rainfall and temperature, and those that have low to medium levels of inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender disparity in education is the disparity or inequality in education between females and males. Several studies upon the gender inequality in education show that it lays as an obstacle in the achievement of several development goals. Using secondary data, the paper aims to calculate Gender Equality in Education Index (GEEI) for India, find out the extent of gender inequality in education, find out the age groups in which gender inequality in education is present and find out the reasons of variation in gender inequality in education across India. To examine the extent of gender inequality in education across Indian, Gender Parity Index (GPI) with respect to literacy rate (LR) since 1991 and Education for all Development Index (EDI) for the Indian states or union territories for the years 2013-14 and 2014-15 have been calculated. To find out the age groups in which gender inequality in education is present, Gender Gap (GG) of Never Attended (NA) has been calculated for the Indian states or union territories for 2011 and to find out the reasons of variation in gender inequality in education across India, regression analysis has been done using cross section data on literacy rate, poverty, percentage of Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST), population size and average budgeted government expenditure on education for 2011. The study shows that gender inequality in education where females lag behind than males still exist in all the states or union territories of India and in the age groups 30-34, 35-59 and 60+, in all the states or union territories of India percentage of female never attended (NA) has remained higher than percentage of male NA. The regression analysis shows that per capita net state domestic product (PCNSDP) have a significant positive impact on GPI of literacy rate. The regression analysis also shows that amongst all the religions in India, only percentages of Christians and all other persuasions population have a significant positive and negative impact respectively on GPI of literacy rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Compared to the extensive literature on measurement of poverty, the question of how the poor are distributed regionally has received less attention. This paper fills the gap in the literature by providing a conceptual framework to measure inequality in the distribution of the poor. A poverty segregation curve is used to compare a region’s share of the poor population with its share in the overall population. A unique contribution of the paper is formulating a generalized version of the poverty segregation curve. Unlike the segregation curve, the generalized segregation curve also takes average poverty rates into account while ranking distributions. Thus the generalized segregation curve may rank a distribution with substantially lower poverty rates above a distribution with higher poverty rates, when differences between their segregation curves are relatively small. The segregation curves are used to analyze changes in the distribution of the poor in India since the economic reforms in the early 1990s. Poverty rates and shares among all states, territories, and districts in India are estimated using data from the National Sample Survey Organization in 1994, 2004, and 2010. In the decades following the reforms India witnessed high growth rates and declining poverty rates. Despite the reduction in poverty, our analysis is the first to reveal that there was a significant rise in segregation of the poor over time. Some states had disproportionately high share of the poor compared to their share in the total population. Within states, the extent of segregation was lower among some of the poorest states and higher in less poor states. The generalized segregation curves show that the substantial decline in poverty rates since the reforms was not adequate to compensate the rise in segregation of the poor. Increase in segregation was also evident when the poor are identified as those who lacked education, health, and access to basic services. Reducing the segregation of the poor is important if India is to attain regionally balanced economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]