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According to the Freeman theory, increasing the backbone stiffness to some extent is an effective way to obtain the remarkable membrane with both high permeability and selectivity. In this work, a high performance nanofiltration (NF) membrane was prepared via tailoring the polyester/polyamide backbone stiffness. The flexible monomer-piperazine (PIP) and the rigid monomer-bisphenol F (BPF) were selected as the aqueous phase monomers, and they were interfacial reacted with trimesoyl chloride (TMC) on the polyethersulfone (PES) UF membrane to generate the polyester/polyamide layer. By mixing PIP with BPF, both of the polyester/polyamide backbone stiffness and microporosity degree enhanced. As a result, the PIP/BPF NF membrane possessed a 2.6-fold pure water flux (PWF) of the PIP NF membrane (the salt rejection remained at the same level), and 4.8-fold PWF of the BPF NF membrane. Our results revealed a novel and facile way to improve the NF membrane performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel polypiperazine-amide nanofiltration (NF) membrane with very high salt rejection was successfully developed in this work. The NF membrane chlorine-tolerant ability were improved greatly after mixing a small amount of α,ω-diamino poly(ethylene glycol) (NH 2 -PEG-NH 2 ) with piperazine (PIP) in the aqueous phase. The XPS result demonstrated that the polymerization degree of the NF membrane was notably enhanced with the addition of NH 2 -PEG-NH 2 . The solute rejections and chlorine tolerance were improved remarkably, while the permeate flux remained almost at the same level. When the NH 2 -PEG-NH 2 (2 kDa) content in the total amine was 1%w/w (0.01%w/v in the aqueous solution), NF membrane performance was optimal. This membrane exhibited a pure water flux (PWF) of 34.9 L m −2 h −1 along with Na 2 SO 4 , MgSO 4 , MgCl 2 and NaCl rejections of 99.5%, 99.2%, 90.9% and 58.3% (2000 ppm, 6 bar, 25 °C), respectively. Moreover, the NF membrane performance was maintained after being treated by 14,000 ppm NaClO for 1 h. Therefore, adding a small amount of NH 2 -PEG-NH 2 in the aqueous phase could be considered to be an effective way to improve the polypiperazine-amide NF membrane chlorine-tolerant ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Novel high-flux thin film composite (TFC) nanofiltration (NF) membranes were fabricated by the sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) pre-oxidation of the mixed diamine monomers of piperazine (PIP) and 2,2′-bis(1-hydroxyl-1-trifluoromethyl-2,2,2-triflutoethyl)-4,4′-methylenedianiline (BHTTM) in the aqueous phase solution, and via interfacial polymerization (IP) with trimesoyl chloride (TMC) on the polysulfone (PSF) ultrafiltration (UF) membrane. The chemical change of the pre-oxidation aqueous phase solution was characterized by LC-MS. By optimizing the NaClO and NaOH content in the aqueous phase solution, the pure water flux was improved greatly and the salt rejection kept on a high level (>90%). The properties of NF membranes were characterized by XPS, SEM, AFM and contact angle. Through the NaClO pre-oxidation of the mixed diamine monomers of PIP and BHTTM in the aqueous phase solution, the active layer of NF membrane became thinner and the pore size of NF membrane was enlarged. Besides, after oxidation treatment by 3000 ppm active chlorine solution for 1 h, the NF membrane exhibited pure water flux (PWF) with 161 (LMH) and Na 2 SO 4 rejection of 92.1% under 0.6 MPa. The molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of the NF membrane was greater than 500, which was calculated from the carbohydrates rejection. The good performance and the satisfactory stability of the novel high-flux NF membrane demonstrated its good potential in the practical application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using Polysulfone (PSF) ultrafiltration (UF) membrane as porous support, a chlorine-tolerant nanofiltration (NF) membrane was prepared by interfacial polymerization of piperazine (PIP) and 2,2'-bis(1-hydroxyl-1-trifluoromethyl-2,2,2-triflutoethyl)-4,4'-methylenedianiline (BHTTM) mixture with trimesoyl chloride (TMC). The XPS, SEM, AFM and contact angle methods were employed to characterize the physicochemical properties and morphology of the prepared NF membranes. The effects of preparation conditions such as reaction time, monomers mixing ratio and oxidation treatment on NF membrane performance were investigated. The salt rejection of the NF membrane met the order of Na 2 SO 4 >MgSO 4 >NaCl, indicating the membrane possessed a negative surface charge. The results showed the NF membrane prepared under the optimum conditions exhibited pure water flux (PWF) with 79.1 (L/m 2 h) and Na 2 SO 4 rejection of 99.5% under 0.6 MPa. The optimized post oxidation condition was treated by 3000 ppm NaClO solution for 1 h. The best NF membrane had a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) less than 300 Da, corresponding to the pore size of 1 nm, which was calculated from the rejection of carbohydrates. The robustness of the NF membrane was proven by showing satisfactory stability in the long time running. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heavy metals pollution is an urgent problem that seriously hazards human health and ecosystems. Herein, dually charged nanofiltration (NF) membranes were prepared via a facile modification with diethylenetriamine (DETA) after interfacial polymerization. More amine groups were imported after grafting and a polyamide layer with opposite charges was constructed. The as-prepared membranes had a pure water permeability of 17.0 L m−2 h−1 bar−1 and maintained ideal rejection for both Na 2 SO 4 (98.2%) and MgCl 2 (94.1%), illustrating dually charged property. In addition, the dually charged NF membranes had high rejection to a series of heavy metals, showing good application potential in heavy metals removal. [Display omitted] • The dually charged NF membranes were fabricated by microwave-assisted grafting of diethylenetriamine after interfacial polymerization. • The as-prepared membrane showed a PWP of 17.0 L m−2 h−1 bar−1 and high rejection to both Na 2 SO 4 (98.2%) and MgCl 2 (94.1%)。 • The dually charged NF membranes had high rejection to a series of heavy metals, showing good application potential in heavy metals removal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Separation performance of nanofiltration (NF) membranes is constrained by the trade-off between permeability and selectivity. Herein, a facile and environmental friendly water activation before microwave heating was performed to improve the performance of NF membranes and overcome this trade-off. The water activation before microwave heating facilitated the hydrolysis of acyl chloride, resulting in a loose polyamide layer with enhanced hydrophilicity and surface charge. The activated NF membrane showed a permeance of 29.9 L m-2 h-1 bar-1, which is almost 2 times higher than the control. The membrane possesses a Na 2 SO 4 rejection of 96.8% and high selectivity to antibiotics and NaCl. At the meantime, the fouling resistance to model foulants including bovine serum albumin and sodium alginate was significantly enhanced. The water activation before microwave heating is proved to be an adequate strategy for fabricating NF membranes. [Display omitted] • A facile water activation before microwave heating was performed to prepare PA NF membranes. • The activated NF membrane showed a 95.9% increment in permeance compared to the control. • The activated NF membrane had good performance in separating antibiotics and NaCl. • The activated NF membrane showed enhanced fouling resistance to BSA and SA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By causing the water molecule vibration to generate heat, microwave has become a rapid and efficient heating method which is widely used in industrial production. Herein, microwave heating assistant interfacial polymerization (IP) process was innovatively applied to fabricate polypiperazine-amide nanofiltration (NF) membrane for the first time. With microwave heating, a uniform and faultless polyamide (PA) layer could be generated with low monomer concentration. The pure water flux (PWF) of the NF membrane fabricated with microwave heating was 157.1 L m-2 h-1 with the Na 2 SO 4 rejection of 97.7% under 0.6 MPa. Meanwhile, such NF membrane showed extraordinary selectivity to Cl- and SO 4 2− for a series of mixing solution with different concentrations. This new insight into microwave heating assistant IP provides a feasible method for the high-permselectivity NF membranes fabrication. Image 1 • The microwave heating was applied for the IP process to fabricate TFC NF membrane for the first time. • The uniform and faultless PA layer could be generated with low monomer concentration with microwave heating. • The NF membrane showed good permeability and rejection and high selectivity to Cl- and SO 4 2−. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A novel TFC NF membrane was fabricated by incorporation of β-CD into polyamide backbone. • The effect of β-CD on the NF membrane performance was studied thoroughly. • Such NF membrane showed a high permselectivity performance. Based on the Freeman theory, tailoring polymer backbone stiffness can improve membrane performance. Therefore, a rigid monomer—bisphenol F—to enhance the backbone stiffness of polyester/polyamide was utilized to prepare high performance nanofiltration (NF) membranes in the previous work. Here, the three-dimensional (3D) hollow-bowl-structure monomer—beta cyclodextrin (β-CD)—is added into the polyester/polyamide backbone to fabricate a 3D-microstructure NF membrane. With the incorporation of β-CD, the pure water flux (PWF) increases by 68% (up to 152 L m−2 h−1, 0.6 MPa), while the rejection of Na 2 SO 4 remains high (96.8%). Surprisingly, such NF membrane exhibits a very low rejection of NaCl (1.1%) and high rejection of Na 2 SO 4 (up to 95.8%) when dealing with a Na 2 SO 4 /NaCl mixed solution. The fabricated 3D-microstructure NF membrane shows the potential to be applied in the monovalent/divalent anion separation field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel chitosan (CS)-piperazine (PIP) composite nanofiltration (NF) membrane with satisfied characteristics for brackish water and seawater desalination was successfully developed. PIP was mixed with CS during the interfacial polymerization (IP) process to enhance the NF membrane permeate flux. The resultant NF membranes were characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscope (SEM), atomic force microscope (AFM), contact angle. Effects of CS concentration, trimesoyl chloride (TMC) concentration, reaction time and the mixing ratio of CS/PIP on NF membrane performance were investigated thoroughly. When PIP in the aqueous phase monomers reached to 25% (w/w), the PWF (60.6 L·m−2·h−1) was synergistically improved by nearly 2 times without a significant reduction of Na2SO4 rejection (89.1%). Moreover, the NF membranes possessed excellent performance for the desalination of brackish water and seawater, which showed high potential to be applied in the desalination process for water treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Good mechanical strength, high water flux and salt rejection, and highly chlorine-tolerant property are essential for nanofiltration (NF) membrane. To achieve these properties, polyethersulfone (PES) NF thin-film composite (TFC) membrane was prepared via interfacial polymerization using piperazine (PIP) and 2,2′-bis(1-hydroxyl-1-trifluoromethyl-2,2,2-triflutoethyl)-4,4′-methylenedianiline (BHTTM) as aqueous monomers, trimesoyl chloride (TMC) as organic monomers, and PES three-channel capillary ultrafiltration (UF) membrane as substrate. The prepared NF membrane displays pure water flux of 36.1 L m −2 h −1 and Na 2 SO 4 rejection of 96.8% at 4 bar. NaClO solution was used to treat NF membranes for the evaluation of NF membrane chlorine-tolerant property. The effects of NaClO concentration, contact time and operating pressure on the chlorine-tolerant property of NF membrane have been thoroughly investigated. Particularly, the durability of NF membrane versus Cl was tested though long-term test. The pure water flux and Na 2 SO 4 rejection of NF membrane after 5000 ppm-h NaClO immersion was 43.4 L m −2 h −1 and 99.8% at 4 bar, respectively. The fabricated NF membrane could tolerant 13000 ppm-h Cl under 4 bar, and the water flux and Na 2 SO 4 rejection are maintain at 51.6 L m −2 h −1 and 99.6% during NF running process, respectively. Moreover, NF membrane exhibits 3.84×10 5 ppm-h chlorine-tolerant at 0 bar. These results indicated that the fabricated PES three-channel capillary NF membrane could be applied to practical process of desalination or water softening. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The TFC RO/NF membranes are the predominant membranes applied in desalination, and heat curing is an essential step in its industrial production, which increases the polyamide cross-linking degree and facilitate packing but leads permeability decrease. Nevertheless, the mechanism of heat curing on TFC membranes permeation resistance changes is still ambiguous. Figuring it out will aid in crafting a more effective optimization strategy in high flux membrane preparation. Herein, we prepared a range of TFC RO/NF membranes with various monomer concentrations on different substrates and quantified the permeation resistance changes by a resistance-in-series model. For nascent TFC RO/NF membranes, the PA layer provided almost all permeation resistance. After heat curing, the substrate exhibited a marked increase in permeation resistance. The change in the permeation resistance composition was further exacerbated by the decrease in monomer concentration. For TFC NF membranes with heat curing, the proportion of substrate permeation resistance increased significantly, rising from 31.62 % to 75.05 %. This study made a comprehensive analysis of the impact of the permeation resistance in TFC RO/NF membranes caused by heat curing, enriched the insight into the impact of heat curing on TFC membranes, and helped to prepare TFC membranes with better desalination performance. [Display omitted] • The resistance proportions of RO/NF membranes are quantitatively revealed. • The substrate resistance increases significantly due to heat curing. • Low monomer concentration results in high substrate resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the chemical stability differences between dry and wet nanofiltration membranes when immersed in strong acid and base environments. Systematic experimental studies were conducted on both types of nanofiltration (NF) membranes, supplemented by Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations and Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations. The results indicate that wet NF membranes, soaked in deionized water for a week, exhibit higher chemical stability compared to dry membranes treated only with air. Traditional air heating causes membrane pore contraction and excessive crosslinking. However, after a week of immersion in water, the polyamide (PA) layer gradually becomes a loose and well-extendable PA layer. MD simulations revealed that H+ and OH− ions possess lower diffusion coefficients and extended residence times in dry NF membranes, making them more prone to damage. Additionally, DFT calculations disclosed that the Gibbs free energy (ΔG) for amide bond hydrolysis in wet NF membranes, in the presence of water molecules, is elevated, significantly delaying their hydrolysis rate under extreme conditions. This study highlights the pivotal role of membrane wetness in the chemical durability of NF membranes and offers a novel perspective for improving membrane lifespan and efficiency. [Display omitted] • Wet NF membranes show markedly higher chemical stability in acidic and basic environments. • MD simulations indicate lower ion diffusion and longer residence times in dry NF membranes. • DFT calculations reveal slower amide bond hydrolysis in wet membranes, enhancing durability. • Study offers new insights for extending NF membrane lifespan and improving filtration efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the critical requirements of environmental preservation and resource reutilization, the recovery of lithium from spent lithium-ion (LIBs) batteries holds immense significance. This study investigates the viability of nanofiltration (NF) membranes for selectively separating lithium from spent LIBs leaching solution. A membrane-based approach uniquely sidesteps the significant metal losses often encountered in traditional methods that necessitate initial pH adjustments. The NF270 and DK membranes were characterized and evaluated. DK demonstrated superior rejection capabilities for high-valence metal ions with over 99.0 % rejection, while allowing a notable 40.1 % lithium passage rate. Furthermore, DK showcased enhanced acid resistance compared to NF270. The findings underscore the characteristics essential for NF membranes in this application, and the study affirms the feasibility of membrane-based lithium recovery, marking a stride in battery recycling research. [Display omitted] • Proposed a novel membrane-based process for spent lithium battery recycling • The battery-grade lithium carbonate can be obtained through two-stage nanofiltration. • DK membrane exhibits excellent acid resistance and high-valence metal ion rejection to the leaching solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research has focused on the acid resistance of polyamide nanofiltration (NF) membranes, a critical aspect for their stability during practical applications. However, the impact of different acids, particularly the role of various anions, on NF membrane acid resistance remains unexplored. Our research systematically evaluates NF membrane performance and property alterations under various acids at identical pH levels, supplemented by density functional theory (DFT) simulations. Results reveal that membranes treated with H₃PO₄ retain desirable NF performance, in stark contrast to those treated with H₂SO₄ and HCl, which undergo significant degradation. Specifically, H₃PO₄-treated membranes showed only a 4.2 % decline in Na₂SO₄ rejection, compared to a dramatic 83.3 % decline for HCl-treated membranes under identical pH. This degradation is linked to the acids infiltrating the polyamide structure. The membrane's enhanced resistance to H₃PO₄ is primarily due to the strong negative charge of phosphate ions, influenced by the Donnan effect, which prevents deep penetration into the membrane. This is further supported by DFT simulations, which reveal that the interaction energy between the membrane surface and phosphate ions is over twice as high as with chlorine ions, highlighting the importance of ion-specific interactions. This research highlights the crucial role of anions in acidic environments for the maintenance and operation of NF membranes in industrial applications. It provides key insights for enhancing membrane efficiency and longevity under acidic conditions. [Display omitted] • Filled the research gap in polyamide membranes resistance to different acids. • Revealed the variance in acid resistance for anionic charge-induced Donnan effect. • Provides insights for optimizing acid utilization in industrial processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although covalent organic frameworks (COFs) membranes have promising applications in water treatment due to their ordered structure and adjustable pore size, most of them are imine-linked ones, which severely limits their application in harsh environments. Herein, we offer a stable novel COFs membrane which is composed of hydrazone bonds and β-ketoenamine structures. Such β-ketoenamine based COFs composite membrane was fabricated via interfacial catalytic polymerization on a nylon substrate, which was generated at the water (P-Toluenesulfonic acid)/n-hexane (2,5-dimethoxyterephthalhydrazide, 1,3,5-triformylphoroglucinol) interface. The resultant COFs membrane demonstrates excellent chemical stability in strong acidic (2 mol/L)/alkaline (9 mol/L)/organic solvents (dioxane, acetone, methanol, and ethanol) media. The optimized COFs membrane achieved 109.73 L m−2 h−1 bar−1 permeance in Congo Red aqueous solution and 99.56 % CR rejection. This study exploits a novel approach to produce robust COFs membranes under extreme conditions. [Display omitted] • TpDMTH COFs membranes were fabricated via interfacial catalytic polymerization. • The combination of hydrazone bonds and β-ketoenamine structures makes membranes show stable chemical structure. • Such COFs membranes maintained excellent separation performance in 9 M NaOH solution. • Such COFs membranes showed excellent dye/salt separation performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monomers are elementary units that constitute the polyamide layer, which determines the properties of nanofiltration membranes. The design of nanofiltration membranes with both high separation performance and outstanding chemical stability remains a challenge. In this study, two typical monomers, heterocyclic monomer molecule-piperazine (PIP) and carbon ring molecule-1,4-cyclohexane diamine (CHDA), were applied as aqueous monomers for interfacial polymerization to generate polyamide nanofiltration membranes. The physicochemical properties of the two nanofiltration membranes were comprehensively investigated. The results demonstrated that the nanofiltration membrane fabricated via CHDA exhibited more chemical stability than that fabricated via PIP. The mechanisms influencing the chemical stability difference were elucidated via multiscale simulation. The CHDA polyamide has higher levels of HOMO-LUMO energy and Gibbs-free energy, which make it more stable under harsh chemical environments. Overall, this work presents the effect of the diamine structure on the chemical stability of polyamide NF membranes, which can inspire highly chemically stable nanofiltration membrane fabrication. [Display omitted] • Effect of diamine structure for NF membrane chemical stability was investigated. • Carbon ring molecule had better chemical stability than heterocyclic molecule. • Experimental study showed a high correlation with simulation calculations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, most nanofiltration membranes exhibit satisfactory separation performance on the anions or cations, and few membranes could concurrently separate anion and cation. Therefore, preparing nanofiltration membranes with excellent separation performance for both anionic and cationic ions remains a challenge. Herein, we have developed a series of nanofiltration membranes using conventional interfacial polymerization with different ratios of trimesoyl chloride (TMC) and piperazine (PIP) concentrations. In the interface polymerization process, the amine groups carried by PIP imparted a positive charge, while the hydrolysis of acyl chloride groups resulted in the generation of carboxylic acid groups that introduced a negative charge. The mix-charged nanofiltration membrane could be fabricated by varying PIP/TMC concentration ratios. The optimized membrane exhibited high rejection rates for bivalent ions (Na 2 SO 4 rejection of 96.6 %, MgCl 2 rejection of 93.0 %), and its selectivity for Mg2+/Li+ mixed solution was improved significantly. This work provides a novel approach for the development of nanofiltration membranes capable of effectively separating mono-/divalent ions. [Display omitted] • Fabrication of mixed-charged polyamide membranes via regulating the PIP/TMC ratio directly. • High PIP/TMC ratio leads more unreacted amine groups in the polyamide which was beneficial to MgCl 2 rejection. • Such NF membrane showed excellent separation efficiency to Mg2+/Li+ and SO 4 2−/Cl−. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work describes a novel nanofiltration membrane fabrication strategy in which the octadecylamine-grafted GO with the organophilic property is incorporated in organic phase during interfacial polymerization (IP) in order to protect the polyamide backbone from the attack of free chlorine. Meanwhile, the aqueous phase containing mixed amines of piperazine (PIP) and the fluorine-containing monomer (2,2′-bis(1-hydroxyl-1-trifluoromethyl-2,2,2-triflutoethyl)-4,4′-methylenedianiline, BHTTM) enables further improvement in chlorine resistance of the thin film nanocomposite (TFN) membrane. The modified GO was systematically characterized by TEM, FT-IR, TGA and XRD. And the membrane properties were investigated by XPS, TEM, AFM and dynamic contact angle. The octadecylamine-grafted GO TFN membrane (TFNMA-GO-ODA) exhibits measurably smoother and less hydrophilic surface compared to TFC membrane with mixed amines as well as the similarly fabricated GO TFN membrane. The TFNMA-GO-ODA demonstrated a pure water flux of 49.6 L m −2 h −1 (0.6 MPa), which was nearly 2.5 times than that of pristine PIP TFC membrane and 1.6 times than that of mixed-amine TFC membrane, while keeping high Na 2 SO 4 rejection of 98.4%. More importantly, the TFNMA-GO-ODA presented excellent chlorine resistance, benefiting from the existence of fluorine-containing groups in BHTTM and the protective effect of stable graphene nanosheets. The results indicate great potential of such membrane in water desalination and purification in industrial scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thin film composite (TFC) hollow fiber nanofiltration (NF) membranes were fabricated via interfacial polymerization, with mixed diamines of piperazine (PIP) and 2,2′-bis(1-hydroxyl-1-trifluoromethyl-2,2,2-triflutoethyl)-4,4′-methylenedianiline (BHTTM) as water phase and trimesoyl chloride (TMC) as organic phase. Fabricated membranes were characterized for ATR-FTIR, SEM, AFM, and water contact angle. Formation conditions of the selective polyamide layer have been optimized for a good NF membrane performance. The pure water flux of NF membrane prepared under optimized conditions was 31.2 L·m − 2 ·h − 1 and the rejection for Na 2 SO 4 was 99.7% at 6 bar. The rejections of NF membranes for different salts followed the order: Na 2 SO 4 > MgSO 4 > NaCl > MgCl 2 . The molecular weight cut-off of NF membrane was around 300 Da. The performance of NF membranes was stable during a 7-day filtration process for rejecting different species ions including heavy metal ferric ion (FeCl 3 and Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ) and oxyanions (SO 4 2 − and HPO 4 2 − ), in addition to different inorganic salts. Also, the NF membranes exhibited chlorine tolerant property. This work demonstrates the potential of PES outer-selective TFC hollow fiber membranes for desalination or water softening process, provides database to fabricate suitable NF membranes for long-term salts removal and raise a simple technique to form a thin chlorine-tolerant polyamide layer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanofiltration (NF) membranes with both high permeability and salt rejection are in dire need for water treatment. Generally, heat treatment is an essential step for fabricating polyamide NF membranes. Conventional heat treatment in an oven causes membrane pore shrinkage and over cross-linking, which often leads to a severe loss of permeation performance. Herein, we report a single-step method by heat-treating membranes in non-neutral solutions to avoid pore shrinkage and generate graded hydrolysis in membrane selective layer. As confirmed by the XPS result, the polyamide NF membrane fabricated via controlled hydrolysis possesses a gradient cross-linking degree vertically along the membrane surface. This optimal polyamide NF membrane had a superior pure water permeability (PWP) of 27.5 L m−2 h−1 bar−1 and high Na 2 SO 4 rejection of 98.5%. Such controlled hydrolysis approach provides novel strategy for fabricating high performance polyamide membranes. • Heat treatment in water was employed to avoid pore shrink and over cross-linking of the polyamide active layer. • The performance of NF membrane with gradient cross-linked structure can be easily tuned by adjusting the pH value of water. • The optimal membrane owns a superior pure water permeability of 27.5 L m−2 h−1 bar−1 and a high Na 2 SO 4 rejection of 98.5%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]