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Integrating wind power and solar power plants into a power system has significantly grown over the past decade and is expected to grow to unprecedented levels in the coming years. In Vietnam, much large-scale wind power and solar power plants have been built and connected to the power system in recent years. To investigate and evaluate the impact of these power plants on system power operation, the 110kV power transmission network of Binh Dinh province in Vietnam is used in this paper. In the system, the Phuong Mai 3 wind power plant with a capacity of 21MW, the Fujiwara solar power plant with a peak capacity of 50MWp, and the Cat Hiep solar power plant with a peak capacity of 49.5MWp are modeled by using the PSS/E software to simulate and analyze their impacts on power system stability of the 110kV transmission network in Binh Dinh province, Vietnam. Besides, the control strategies of these power plants are also established to investigate their impacts on the network. In addition, this paper proposes three typical scenarios for the wind power and solar power plants in the system. For each scenario, the grid's operating parameters such as voltage variations and frequency variations are acquired for analyzing and evaluating their impacts on the frequency and voltage variations of the network. The simulation results show that the 110kV power transmission network remains in a stable operation mode after the fault scenarios for the wind and solar power plants. Furthermore, these simulation results provide some guidance for the actual operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, renewable power plants utilize clean and sustainable resources for electricity generation. The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) system uses ocean surface water as a high-temperature source and the water at a depth of the ocean as a low-temperature source. The difference between these temperatures is 20°C or greater, and the working uid with a low boiling point can be used for electricity generation. In a closed-cycle OTEC system, the working uid through a thermodynamic cycle based on the Rankine cycle can rotate the turbine and generate electricity. Due to the ocean surface temperature variation, the output power of the OTEC system changes and yields numerous states concerning the generated power of this plant. Thus, for integrating the OTEC systems with the power system, many aspects of power system including reliability may be affected and thus, new approaches must be developed for investigation of these effects. In this paper, the reliability of the power system containing the OTEC system based on the multi-state reliability model and the conditional value at risk concept is evaluated and the valuable indices used for generation expansion planning of the power system are calculated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarizes the currently available knowledge on the impact of infrasound (IS) and low frequency noise (LFN) on human health and well-being. This narrative review of the literature data was based on the selected, mostly, peer-reviewed research papers, review articles, and meta-analyses that were published in 1971-2022. It has been focused on the results of epidemiological studies concerning the annoyance related to infrasound and low frequency noise, as well as their impact on the cardiovascular system and sleep disorders. Particular attention was also paid to the latest research results and specific sources of IS and LFN, i.e., wind turbines. Med Pr Work Health Saf. 2023;74(5):409-23., (This work is available in Open Access model and licensed under a CC BY-NC 3.0 PL license.)

Worldwide, harmful emissions from coal power plants cause many illnesses contribute to premature deaths burden. Despite its high impact on human health and being a major source of toxic pollutants, coal has been considered a component of global energy for decades. Hence, this work was envisaged to understand the rising environmental and multiple health issues from coal power plants. Studies on the adverse impacts of coal power plants on the environment, including soil, surface water, groundwater and air, were critically evaluated. The health risk from exposure to different pollutants and toxic metals released from the power plant was also demonstrated. The study also highlighted the government initiatives and policies regarding coal power operation and generation. Lastly, the study focused on guiding coal power plant owners and policymakers in identifying the essential cues for the risk assessment and management. The current study found an association between environmental and human health risks due to power generation, which needs intervention from the scientific and medical fields to jointly address public concerns. It is also suggested that future research should concentrate on exposure assessment techniques by integrating source-identification and geographic information systems to assess the health effects of different contaminants from power plants and to mitigate their adverse impact., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This paper addresses the issue of the abolition of annual net metering in Slovenia and compares the electric energy costs for the studied active user after the abolition. The article also provides an exploration of the role played by an aggregator, which serves as a central entity that enables individuals to participate in the electric energy market. An analysis of the case study of an active user was made, where an analysis was made of the measurements of household consumption and photovoltaic plant production for the year 2022. This article presents an economic analysis with and without net metering and an analysis of the aggregator involvement strategies. In addition, a battery energy storage system was also considered in the analysis. An important part of the article is the identification of the flexibility potential for shiftable loads, which enable an aggregator to acquire insight into the energy consumption profile and energy production profile of active users. The following indicators were used to compare the strategies: annual electric energy cost and the indicators including self-sufficiency, self-consumption, and grid dependency. The findings indicate that, even in the absence of annual net metering, the active user can lower their costs for electric energy with the help of an aggregator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermal power plant slag is a waste that is presently obtained from many power stations all over the world. A possible method for its utilization is using it to produce concrete. This paper analyses the effect of thermal power plant slag on the technological properties of concrete mixtures and the mechanical properties of concrete subjected to heat–moisture processing. Quantitative estimates of the investigated factors' influence on the concrete mixture's water demand and the strength of steamed concrete were obtained. The influences of TPP slag content and its water demand on concrete composition features as well as concrete strength are shown. The novelty of the work lies in the use of an experimental–statistical model to optimize the composition of steamed concrete using slag from the viewpoint of maximum strength per kilogram of cement. It has been demonstrated that the optimal part of slag in aggregate, which provides maximum strength at 4 h and 28 days after steaming, is 0.5–0.55 and 0.45–0.55, respectively. A method for the design of concrete composition using slag from thermal power plants is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In the context of an insulated area with a subtropical climate, such as La Réunion island, it is crucial to reduce the energy consumption of buildings and develop local renewable energy sources to achieve energy autonomy. Direct current (DC) nanogrids could facilitate this by reducing the energy conversion steps, especially for solar energy. This article presents the deployment and efficiency evaluation of a 48 VDC low-voltage direct current (LVDC) nanogrid, from conception to real-world installation within a company. The nanogrid consists of a photovoltaic power plant, a lithium–iron–phosphate (LFP) battery, and DC end-use equipment, such as LED lighting and DC fans, for two individual offices. For identical test conditions, which are at an equivalent cabling distance and with the same final power demand, the total power consumed by the installation is measured for several stages from 50 to 400 W, according to a 100% DC configuration or a conventional DC/AC/DC PV configuration incorporating an inverter and AC/DC converter. The methodology used enables a critical view to be taken of the installation, assessing both its efficiency and its limitations. Energy savings of between 23% and 40% are measured in DC for a power limit identified at 150 W for a distance of 25 m. These results show that it is possible to supply 48 VDC in an innovative way to terminal equipment consuming no more than 100 W, such as lighting and air fans, using the IEEE 802.3 bt power over ethernet (PoE) protocol, while at the same time saving energy. The nanogrid hardware and software infrastructure, the methodology employed for efficiency quantification, and the measurement results are described in the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quantification of emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants through the inversion of plumes in satellite images remains a complex problem that current methods can only assess with significant uncertainties. The anticipated launch of the CO2M (Copernicus Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide Monitoring) satellite constellation in 2026 is expected to provide high-resolution images of CO2 (carbon dioxide) column-averaged mole fractions (XCO2), opening up new possibilities. However, the inversion of future CO2 plumes from CO2M will encounter various obstacles. A challenge is the low CO2 plume signal-to-noise ratio due to the variability in the background and instrumental errors in satellite measurements. Moreover, uncertainties in the transport and dispersion processes further complicate the inversion task. To address these challenges, deep learning techniques, such as neural networks, offer promising solutions for retrieving emissions from plumes in XCO2 images. Deep learning models can be trained to identify emissions from plume dynamics simulated using a transport model. It then becomes possible to extract relevant information from new plumes and predict their emissions. In this paper, we develop a strategy employing convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to estimate the emission fluxes from a plume in a pseudo- XCO2 image. Our dataset used to train and test such methods includes pseudo-images based on simulations of hourly XCO2 , NO2 (nitrogen dioxide), and wind fields near various power plants in eastern Germany, tracing plumes from anthropogenic and biogenic sources. CNN models are trained to predict emissions from three power plants that exhibit diverse characteristics. The power plants used to assess the deep learning model's performance are not used to train the model. We find that the CNN model outperforms state-of-the-art plume inversion approaches, achieving highly accurate results with an absolute error about half of that of the cross-sectional flux method and an absolute relative error of ∼ 20 % when only the XCO2 and wind fields are used as inputs. Furthermore, we show that our estimations are only slightly affected by the absence of NO2 fields or a detection mechanism as additional information. Finally, interpretability techniques applied to our models confirm that the CNN automatically learns to identify the XCO2 plume and to assess emissions from the plume concentrations. These promising results suggest a high potential of CNNs in estimating local CO2 emissions from satellite images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary objective of this paper is to design and assess the performance of conventional Proportional Integral Derivative (PID), Internal Model Controller (IMC), and IMCbased PID controllers tailored for Hydro Turbine Power Systems (HTPS) exhibiting Non-Minimum Phase (NMP) dynamics. The focus is on overcoming the limitations of existing approaches in handling such complex system dynamics. Existing literature underscores the difficulty of crafting controllers for such systems. The current study represents a sincere endeavour to design and evaluate the performance of conventional Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID), Internal Model Controller (IMC), and IMCbased PID controllers tailored for HTPS characterized by NMP behaviour. The design case study and simulations were conducted using MATLAB and Simulink. The closed-loop responses of HTPS with PID, IMC, and IMC-PID are presented, and the controller performances are scrutinized in both time and frequency domains. To validate the effectiveness of the controllers, performance indices such as Integrated Squared Error (ISE), Integrated Absolute Error (IAE), Integrated Time-weighted Absolute Error (ITAE), Integrated Time Squared Error (ITSE) are calculated, as well as control efforts are calculated using 2-norm and infinity-norms. These performance indices and control effort norms offer a comprehensive evaluation of the controllers' performance in terms of minimizing error, handling system dynamics, and optimizing control effort across different time scales. Analysing these metrics aids in selecting and refining controllers for optimal performance in HTPS with NMP behaviour. Our findings illustrate that IMCbased PID controllers exhibit superior performance compared to conventional PID controllers in effectively handling the Non- Minimum Phase (NMP) dynamics of Hydro Turbine Power Systems (HTPS). This superiority is substantiated by enhanced performance indices, including reductions in ISE, IAE, ITSE, and ITAE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficient integration of wind energy requires accurate wind power forecasting. This prediction is critical in optimising grid operation, energy trading, and effectively harnessing renewable resources. However, the wind's complex and variable nature poses considerable challenges to achieving accurate forecasts. In this context, the accuracy of wind parameter forecasts, including wind speed and direction, is essential to enhancing the precision of wind power predictions. The presence of missing data in these parameters further complicates the forecasting process. These missing values could result from sensor malfunctions, communication issues, or other technical constraints. Addressing this issue is essential to ensuring the reliability of wind power predictions and the stability of the power grid. This paper proposes a long short-term memory (LSTM) model to forecast missing wind speed and direction data to tackle these issues. A fractional-order neural network (FONN) with a fractional arctan activation function is also developed to enhance generated wind power prediction. The predictive efficacy of the FONN model is demonstrated through two comprehensive case studies. In the first case, wind direction and forecast wind speed data are used, while in the second case, wind speed and forecast wind direction data are used for predicting power. The proposed hybrid neural network model improves wind power forecasting accuracy and addresses data gaps. The model's performance is measured using mean errors and R2 values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper provides thermodynamic analysis of an energy storage concept in which thermal stores are coupled with the feedwater heating train of nuclear-powered steam plant. This allows the electrical output of the plant to be flexed whilst maintaining constant reactor power, thereby providing the equivalent of an electricity storage system and facilitating the adoption of a load-following role for nuclear plant. The concept falls under the umbrella of 'generation-integrated energy storage', which exploits existing hardware required for generation to reduce storage costs, and benefits also from fewer energy transformations when compared to 'electricity-in-electricity-out' forms of storage. This means that a high (effective) round-trip efficiency can be achieved at low cost. An important feature of the proposed system is that the turbine bleed flows (at their various pressures and temperatures) automatically provide good thermal matching with the feedwater temperature profile, so that heat can ultimately be transferred to and from sensible-heat thermal-storage media with high exergetic efficiency. Various options are discussed for the thermal stores, including pressurised water tanks, thermal oils and packed beds. The analysis also includes consideration of the off-design behaviour of cycle components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Virtual power plant (VPP) can aggregate distributed energy resources (DER) and controllable loads to participate in the bidding of electricity market and carbon trading market. However, the uncertainty of renewable power production brings high transaction risks to VPP. Given this background, this paper proposes a novel Wasserstein‐distance based two‐stage distributionally robust chance constrained (DRCC) bidding model for VPP participating in the electricity‐carbon coupled market. The uncertainties are modelled as an ambiguity set based on Wasserstein distance, in which the two‐sided chance constraints are guaranteed satisfied. In the first stage, VPP's revenue is maximized according to the forecast information. In the second stage, the re‐dispatch measures are determined to hedge against the perturbation of uncertainties under the worst‐case distribution within the ambiguity set. Finally, a reformulation approach based on strong duality theory and conditional value‐at‐risk (CVaR) approximation is proposed to transform the DRCC problem into a tractable mixed‐integer linear programming (MILP) framework. Case studies are carried out on the IEEE 30‐bus system to verify the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy communities are key actors in the energy transition since they optimally interconnect renewable energy capacities with the consumers. Despite versatile objectives, they usually aim at improving the self-consumption of renewable electricity within low-voltage grids to maximize revenues. In addition, energy communities are an excellent opportunity to supply renewable electricity to regional and national energy systems. However, effective price signals have to be designed to coordinate the needs of the energy infrastructure with the interests of these local stakeholders. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the integration of energy communities at the national level with a bottom–up approach. District energy systems with a building scale resolution are modeled in a mixed-integer linear programming problem. The Dantzig–Wolfe decomposition is applied to reduce the computational time. The methodology lies within the framework of a renewable energy hub, characterized by a high share of photovoltaic capacities. Both investments into equipment and its operation are considered. The model is applied on a set of five typical districts and weather locations representative of the Swiss building stock. The extrapolation to the national scale reveals a heterogeneous photovoltaic potential throughout the country. Present electricity tariffs promote a maximal investment into photovoltaic panels in every region, reaching an installed capacity of 67.2 GW and generating 80 TWh per year. Placed in perspective with the optimal PV capacity forecast at 15.4 GW   p e a k at the national level, coordinated investment between local and national actors is needed to prevent dispensable expenses. An uncoordinated design is expected to increase the total costs for residential energy systems from 12% to 83% and curtails 48% of local renewable electricity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the integration of large-scale renewable energy generation, some new problems and challenges are brought for the operation and planning of power systems with the aim of mitigating the adverse effects of integrating photovoltaic plants into the grid and safeguarding the interests of diverse stakeholders. In this paper, a methodology for allotting capacity is introduced, which takes into account the active involvement of multiple stakeholders in the energy storage system. The objective model for maximizing the financial proceeds of the PV plant, the system for the storage of energy, and a power grid company is studied. Then, in order to maximize the benefit of three stakeholders, a modified particle swarm optimization algorithm is devised, employing the prevailing typical allocation strategy. Finally, a case study is provided based on the modified IEEE 14-bus and the actual power grid from South Xinjiang, China. The simulation results and findings of the case study conclusively illustrate that the proposed methodology adeptly ensures the maximization of interests for the triad of stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, due to the increase in electricity consumption and environmental problems, power system expansion planning requires new technologies. In this regard, the incorporation of renewable energy sources (RESs) and utilization of demand response (DR) programs need disruptive variations in the present power system configurations. This paper proposes a mixed-integer linear robust multiobjective model for generation and transmission expansion planning (GEP-TEP) taking into account wind farms (WFs) and a DR program based on time-of-use pricing. The suggested model is presented via mixed-integer nonlinear programming (MINLP) at the first stage and then transformed into mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) using the Big M linearization technique. Moreover, long- and short-term uncertainties of load demand and WFs are incorporated into the recommended model to achieve more accurate results. The interval-based method is applied for taking into account long-term uncertainties while the scenario-based stochastic model is applied for modeling short-term uncertainties in the recommended GEP–TEP model. Lastly, the suggested model is investigated on various standard test systems to evaluate the effectiveness of the GEP-TEP model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intermittent renewable energy in a virtual power plant (VPP) brings generation uncertainties, which prevents the VPP from providing a reliable and user-friendly power supply. To address this issue, this paper proposes a gated recurrent unit proximal policy optimization (GRUPPO)-based optimal VPP economic dispatch method. First, electrical generation, storage, and consumption are established to form a VPP framework by considering the accessibility of VPP state information. The optimal VPP economic dispatch can then be expressed as a partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP) problem. A novel deep reinforcement learning method called GRUPPO is further developed based on VPP time series characteristics. Finally, case studies are conducted over a 24-h period based on the actual historical data. The test results illustrate that the proposed economic dispatch can achieve a maximum operation cost reduction of 6.5% and effectively smooth the supply-demand uncertainties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Namakhvani Hydro Power Plant (HPP) loomed large, not just as an ambitious energy project, but as a potential paradigm shift for Georgia's economic landscape. This article delves into the intricate machinery of the project, from its initial aspirations to its unforeseen derailment. It dissects the economic repercussions of its abandonment, casting a dark shadow on the nation's investment climate. Beyond the concrete details, the paper delves into the critical anatomy of the Namakhvani saga. What factors conspired to prevent its completion? What crucial lessons can be gleaned from this missed opportunity? To answer these questions, the article ventures beyond Georgia's borders, exploring successful HPP projects in other countries, and meticulously analyzing their blueprints and community engagement strategies. Drawing from both domestic and international experiences, it paves the way for a revised roadmap for future endeavors. Namakhvani stands not as a monument to failure, but as a potent catalyst for introspection and improvement. This article serves as a critical mirror, reflecting not just the technical missteps but also the fundamental need for transparency, public trust, and rigorous environmental assessments. It champions the integration of local expertise and international best practices, advocating for a collaborative approach that prioritizes both economic progress and ecological responsibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary goal of this research paper is to inculcate AI approaches in thermal power plants to raise automation at power plants by expanding the integrated control idea to thermal power plants and implementing it using AI approaches. The recommended control method will be analysed and contrasted with established strategies. The crucial condition will be evaluated even though the suggested type of control system doesn't come up with an effective result. The development of the conceptual model is predicated on the state of power generation technologies. There will be no suggestion to use newer or different technology, such as fluidised bed combustion, sliding pressure units or ultra-supercritical plants, in the process of producing electricity. This study specifically focuses on the operational features of the control system instead of the hardware technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents methodologies and equipment for SI-traceable inline measurements of water content (a critical quality parameter) in solid biofuels. Inline measurement systems for water content are commonly used at CHP plants, providing continuous real-time data. However, the accuracy of these systems is in most cases unsatisfactory, mainly because the systems are not calibrated representatively for the relevant material, and until now, calibrations traceable to the SI system have not been available. To provide reliable and accurate inline water content data, new procedures and equipment for calibrating measurement systems were developed. Two reference methods for the determination of water content were developed; one measures the airflow and dewpoint of desorbed water in the air passing a test sample, while the other uses a P2O₅-sensor. Additionally, a transfer standard based on a cavity resonance sensor was developed for fast onsite calibration of the inline sensor at the power plant. This new instrument allows for quick and accurate measurements. The transfer standard is made metrologically traceable to the primary measurement standards. The entire system was demonstrated by calibrating an inline microwave-based (MW) sensor at the CHP plant of VERDO in Randers, Denmark. Thus, a complete metrological traceability chain was established from an industrial to a primary standard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study deals with the possibilities of using alternative types of fuels to produce electricity. Power Plant Vojany (PPV) is a thermal power plant (TPP) in eastern Slovakia, which is part of the company Slovenské elektrárne, a. s. (SE). PPV primarily used black coal to produce electricity, which had to be imported from abroad (the Russian Federation). This activity has become inefficient both economically and environmentally, due to the high price of CO2 permits and the high emission factor of this type of fuel. PPV decided to co-combust biomass and refuse-derived fuel (RDF), which resulted in much better economic conditions due to their price, economic efficiency, and partly closed CO2 cycle. The aim of the paper is to explore the possibilities related to the production of energy in the cleanest possible way and with the least possible damage to the environment in coal thermal power plants using the example of operating Power Plant Vojany located in eastern part of Slovakia and to inspire each other for the modern transformation. For the purposes of hypothesis verification, analytical methods focused on overview studies of average fuel prices, comparisons, and the balance of fuels in connection with eliminated CO2 emissions, as well as municipal waste (MW) management in the EU and V4 countries, were used. The authors also focused on the energy recovery and combustion of MW and tracking the achieved CO2 savings in connection with the development of fuel sources in PPV. The results point to the fact that PPV is one of the power plants that could use biomass and RDF as fuel, which confirms the economic advantages of this procedure. The results confirm that the potential of RDF production in Slovakia is sufficient to ensure the operation of PPV at planned, even higher volumes of electricity production. The transformation to cleaner operation of coal thermal power plants represents a significant contribution of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the global demand for renewable energy continues to rise, biogas production has emerged as a promising solution for sustainable energy generation. This review article presents the advantages of biogas technologies (mainly agricultural, based on waste of animal and plant origin) and extensively discusses the main principles of biogas production in the anaerobic digestion (AD). In this respect, the main parameters of the process, which require monitoring and decisive for its efficiency are described, therefore: temperature, pH value, retention time and organic loading rate (OLR). The principles of substrate selection are also discussed and the necessity and advantages of the use of organic waste according to the model of a circular economy and the concept of sustainable development, are indicated. It is emphasized that according to the new European regulations, the crops classified as food cannot be considered energy crops. The part on biogas production is summarised with an explanation of the necessity to treat and purify biogas. Biogas purification is important from the point of view of the efficiency of its conversion into electricity. A special place in this paper is devoted to the design, construction, functioning and operation of biogas plants, based on both scientific and practical aspects. In conclusion of this chapter, the economic aspects and profitability of operating biogas plants are discussed. Cost and benefit analyses are the major tool used for the systematic evaluation of the financial costs and potential benefits associated with the operation of biogas plants. The important fact is that the return on investment can be achieved within a few years, provided the activities are well-planned and executed. In addition to the fundamental issues of the operation of biogas plants, this article presents the global situation regarding the development of biogas plants, discussing in detail the specific needs and limitations on different continents. It is a interesting and extensive part of this article. The global agricultural biogas market is at very different levels of development. Most such installations are located in Asia and Europe. China has the highest number of biogas plants, with more than 100,000 biogas plants, followed by Germany with over 10,000 plants. In addition to the 100,000 biogas plants, China also has a large number of household biogas units, which gives a total of approx. 40 million operating units. The article concludes with a discussion of opportunities and barriers to the development of biogas plants, pointing to: financial issues, access to feedstock, political regulations, public awareness and the geopolitical situation. The most frequently cited reasons for investment failure include economic problems, lack of professional knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In large-scale water conservancy and hydropower projects, complex rock structures are considered to be the main factor controlling the stability of hydraulic structures. The classification of rock mass structure plays an important role in the safety of all kinds of large buildings, especially underground engineering buildings. As a quantitative classification index of rock mass, the rock block index is very common in the classification of borehole and dam foundation rock mass structures. However, there are few studies on the classification of underground engineering rock masses. Moreover, their classification criteria have disadvantages in spatial dimension. Therefore, this paper takes the long exploratory cave CPD1 in the water transmission and power generation system of the Qingtian pumped storage power station in Zhejiang Province as the research object and launches a study on the structural classification of the rock mass of a flat cave based on the 3D rock block index. According to the group distribution of joints, the sections are statistically homogeneous. Additionally, the Monte Carlo method is used to carry out random simulations to generate a three-dimensional joint network model. The virtual survey lines are arranged along the center of the shape of the three different orthogonal planes of the 3D joint network model to represent the boreholes, and the RBI values of the virtual survey lines on each orthogonal plane are counted to classify the rock mass structure of the flat cave in a refined manner using the rock block index of the rock mass in 3D. The above method realizes the application of the 3D rock block index in underground engineering and overcomes the limitations of traditional rock mass classification methods in terms of classification index and dimension. The results show that: (1) Three-dimensional joint network simulations built on statistical and probabilistic foundations can visualize the structure of the rock mass and more accurately reflect the structural characteristics of the actual rock mass. (2) Based on the 3D rock block index, the rock mass structure of the long-tunnel CPD1 is classified, from that of a continuous structure to a blocky structure, corresponding to the integrity of the rock mass from complete to relatively complete. The classification results are consistent with the evaluation results of horizontal tunnel seismic wave geophysical exploration. (3) Based on the 3D joint network model, it is reasonable and feasible to use the 3D rock block index as a quantitative evaluation index to determine the structure type of flat cave rock masses. The above method is helpful and significant in the classification of underground engineering rock mass structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The greenhouse gas emissions from the boiler of pulp and paper industries can be minimized by adapting chemical looping combustion (CLC) technology. This work aims to analyze the energy, exergy, economic, and exergoeconomic performance of an industrial scale CLC plant for district heat and electricity generation using waste bark from the paper and pulp industry. The CLC plant with one natural ore and one industrial waste oxygen carrier (OC) is modeled using Aspen Plus. The performance of the CLC plant has been compared to Örtofta combined heat and power plant without CO2 capture and with post‐combustion CO2 capture as the reference cases. Results showed that the CLC‐based power plant is energetically, exegetically, and economically efficient compared to the reference cases. The circulating fluidized bed boiler unit contributes the highest exergy destruction (about 50–80%). Among the CO2 capture plants, the CLC plant with ilmenite has the lowest levelized cost of district heat (4.58 € GJ−1), and a payback period (9.69 years) followed by the CLC plant with LD slag (5.91 € GJ−1 and 11.84 years), and the plant with PCC (6.94 € GJ−1 and 13.58 years). The exergoeconomic analysis reveals that the CLC reactors have the highest cost reduction potential, followed by the steam turbine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For political and economic reasons, renewable sources of energy have gained much importance in establishing a sustainable energy economy. By their very nature, however, their benefits depend on changeable weather conditions, and are unrelated to the generation and consumption patterns in industrial or home environments. This generation–dissipation disparity induces price fluctuations and threatens the stability of the supply system, yet can be alleviated by installing energy depots. While the classic methods of energy storage are hardly cost-effective, they may be supplemented, or replaced, by a distributed system of small-scale hydropower plants with ponds used as energy reservoirs. In this paper, following a rigorous mathematical argument, a dynamic model of a multi-cascade of hydropower plants is constructed, and a cost-optimal controller, with formally proven properties, is designed. On the one hand, it allows for an increase in the owners' revenue by as much as 30% (compared to a free-flow state); on the other hand, it reduces the load fluctuation imposed on the grid and the legacy supply system. Moreover, the risk of floods and droughts downstream resulting from inappropriate use of the plants is averted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Virtual power plants (VPP) with resources and storages are able to control the active power of the network. They are also connected to the network through an inverter, which is capable of controlling reactive power. Therefore, it is expected that the optimal use of inverter‐based VPP can play an effective role in improving the economic and technical status of the distribution network. So, the operation of a smart distribution system is presented in this paper by considering inverter‐based VPPs constrained to the operator's measures. The weighted sum of expected energy loss (EEL) and voltage security index (VSI) is minimized while considering AC optimal power flow equations, restrictions of network's security, and operating model of the inverter‐based VPPs. Uncertainties with an origin of the amount of demand, renewable energy, and parameters of mobile energy storage are also discussed. The uncertainties are modelled using a stochastic optimization approach relying on the unscented transformation (UT). Evaluating inverter‐based VPP performance, providing models of flexible resources such as responsive loads and mobile storages, checking network voltage security status, and modelling uncertainties using the UT method are among the innovations of this study. According to the results, it is demonstrated that the technical situation of the distribution system is improved with the help of optimal management of the VPP. With energy management of the inverter‐based VPP, the suggested design has succeeded to enhance the operating status (voltage security) of the system by approximately 33–73% (12%) in comparison to power flow studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the high penetration of virtual power plants (VPPs), the bi-directional power flow between VPPs and active distribution grids makes the grid operation complex. Without congestion management, the operation schedule only considers the economic benefits, and power flow constraints might be violated. Hence, it is necessary to conduct power interaction within the operation constraints. This paper proposes a coordinated economic dispatch method under voltage security constraints. The linear expressions were derived by simplifying the AC power flow equations to reduce the computation complicity. Then, optimal economic dispatch models with voltage security constraints were established for the active distribution grid and VPPs, respectively. Meanwhile, the transacted power and clearing price were set as the communication variables, and a coordinated strategy was proposed for the overall optimal goal. The modified IEEE 33-node and PG&E-node distribution grids were utilized for the simulations, and the results affirmed the validity of the proposed method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper highlights the importance of accurately modeling the operational constraints of Combined-Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGTs) within a unit-commitment framework. In practice, in Colombia, when given an initial dispatch by the Independent System Operator, CCGT plants are operated according to the results of heuristic simulation codes. Such heuristics often omit technical operating constraints, including hot, warm, or cold startup ramps; the minimum operation hours required for a gas turbine to start a steam turbine; the relationship between the dispatched number of steam and gas turbines; the load distribution among gas turbines; and supplementary fires. Most unit-commitment models in the literature represent standard technical constraints like startup, shutdown, up/down ramps, and in some cases, supplementary fires. However, they typically overlook other real-life CCGT operating constraints, which were considered in this work. These constraints are crucial in integrated energy systems to avoid equipment damage, which can potentially put CCGT plants out of service and ultimately lead to lower operating costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Film forming amines (FFA) are corrosion inhibitors added to power plant water. The major concern associated with their application is the thermal stability in the high temperature power plant water medium, along with the risk of decomposition into low molecular weight organic acids that can cause corrosive damages in the water/steam cycle. However, there is still a lack of sufficient data on the thermal stability of FFA corrosion inhibitors. This paper presents a comprehensive critical review and state‐of‐the‐art assessment of the results obtained from studying the thermolysis of FFA corrosion inhibitors in power plant water/steam cycle conditions, highlighting the relevance for practical application and research needs. Temperature, exposure time, initial concentration, and alkalizing agents were identified as key factors influencing the thermal stability of FFA in high temperature power plant water. Organic acids are found in concentrations harmless to metal tubes. Advanced scientific background information and additional research are required on this topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The generation of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy is increasing continuously because it is renewable, unlimited, and clean energy. In the past, generation systems depended on non-renewable sources such as oil, coal, and gas. Therefore, this paper assesses the performance of a 51 kW PV solar power plant connected to a low-voltage grid to feed an administrative building in the 6th of October City, Egypt. The performance analysis of the considered gridconnected PV system is carried out using power system simulator for Engineering (PSS/E) software. Where the PSS/E program, monitors and uses the power analyzer that displays the parameters and measures some parameters such as current, voltage, total power, power factor, frequency, and current and voltage harmonics, the used inverter from the type of grid inverter for the considered system. The results conclude that when the maximum solar radiation is reached, the maximum current can be obtained from the solar panels, thus obtaining the maximum power and power factor. Decreasing total voltage harmonic distortion, a current harmonic distortion within permissible limits using active harmonic distortion because this type is fast in processing up to 300 microseconds. The connection between solar stations and the national grid makes the system more efficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, the technical, economic and environmental feasibility of a gridconnected solar photovoltaic (PV) system for a single-family residential home in several Libyan cities with separate locations was studied. In Libya, the rate of electricity consumption is the largest in the domestic sector, with 60% of the total electricity consumption. Due to the frequent power outages in Libya, and the dependence of power generation mainly on traditional sources, pollution problems, and energy alternatives are an important priority. To overcome these problems, we propose maximizing the exploitation of renewable energy sources for energy production. In this paper, the HOMER Pro Renewable Energy Modeling Software was used to conduct a technical evaluation of a grid-connected solar PV system's economic viability, where the design was proposed for a residential house for six Libyan cities. The size of the PV system for a residential home is estimated at 15 kW. The findings indicated that the suggested design could supply 85% of the household's electrical requirements. AlKufra was the best location in terms of economics and the environment for a grid plus PV system, as the initial cost of the system was $9,570, the Cost of Energy (COE) was $0.0314, and the carbon dioxide emissions were 56,982 kg/year. Overall, lower prices for PV modules and PV components combined with long life, less maintenance needs, and minimum parity near the grid. The results show that PV systems connected to the residential grid are an effective energy management option in most Libyan cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase in renewable generation of a distributed nature has brought significant new challenges to power and energy system management and operation. Self-consumption in buildings is widespread, and with it rises the need for novel, adaptive and intelligent building energy management systems. Although there is already extensive research and development work regarding building energy management solutions, the capabilities for adaptation and contextualization of decisions are still limited. Consequently, this paper proposes a novel contextual rule-based system for energy management in buildings, which incorporates a contextual dimension that enables the adaptability of the system according to diverse contextual situations and the presence of multiple users with different preferences. Results of a case study based on real data show that the contextualization of the energy management process can maintain energy costs as low as possible, while respecting user preferences and guaranteeing their comfort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Virtual power plant (VPP) is a comprehensive demand response (DR) technology to aggregate various power supply and consumption resources to help stabilise power grid fluctuations and reduce CO2 emissions. Fast‐charging electric vehicles (EVs) with higher charging power and shorter charging time are the most potential high‐quality DR resources of VPP in the future. In this paper, a new 'spatial‐temporal' bi‐layer optimal control strategy is proposed to solve the daily real‐time DR dispatching problem of large‐scale EVs including fast‐charging ones in a multi‐area VPP oriented to China's dual carbon target. This proposed bi‐layer strategy has two main contributions in both spatial and temporal domains. One is that, compared with the limited geographical area in traditional VPP, the upper layer of the proposed strategy considers the DR problem of EVs in a VPP with multiple geographical areas and establishes a spatial optimisation model of EVs DR considering both energy and carbon transaction costs of the overall VPP. The other is that rather than traditional slow‐charging EVs DR control with 1‐h temporal interval, the lower layer of the proposed strategy adds fast‐charging EVs in the real‐time orderly charging and discharging DR control by a shorter temporal interval of 15 min and designs two different charging and discharging price stimulation scenarios. The simulation results in the last section of this paper show that the proposed 'spatial‐temporal' bi‐layer optimal control strategy can effectively guide the charging and discharging behaviours of EVs in both spatial and temporal domains of a multi‐area VPP, achieving lower energy and carbon transaction cost and smaller load fluctuations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Varying demands for electricity within the energy sector require the modification of operating modes to ensure both an uninterrupted electricity supply and the upholding of safety standards. This paper presents a method for the prediction of drum fatigue life, via the local analysis of stress–strain fields and low-cycle fatigue tests of the drum material. The analysis compares the fatigue properties of an unused material and a material that has undergone many years of operation. In addition, this paper suggests drum operating conditions based on the results of load testing under industrial conditions. The drum model was developed on the basis of technical documentation. The analysis includes the calculations of time-dependent temperature distributions, stresses, and strains for various drum startup modes. The drum material fatigue properties are determined under low-cycle conditions. Using the modeling results and fatigue properties, predictions of drum life for different startup modes are presented. The paper summarizes the impact of a range of startup procedures and the drum material fatigue properties on the fatigue life of a working drum, under various mechanical and thermal loads. In addition, this paper proposes a methodological approach to fatigue life assessment, as a combination of multiple research methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a two-stage model of an integrated energy demand response is proposed, and the quantitative relationship between the two main concerns of investors, i.e., investment return and investment cycle and demand response, is verified by the experimental data. Energy storage technology is a key means through which to deal with the instability of modern energy sources. One of the key development paths in the electricity market is the development by energy merchants of energy storage power plants in the distribution network to engage in a grid demand response. This research proposes a two-stage energy storage configuration approach for a cold-heat-power multi-energy complementary multi-microgrid system. Considering the future bulk connections of distributed power generation, the two most critical points of energy storage station construction are the power generation equipment and specific scenarios for serving the community, as well as the purchase and sale price of electricity for serving the community microgrid (which directly affects the investment revenue). Therefore, this paper focuses on analyzing the different impacts caused by these two issues; namely, the two most important concerns for the construction of energy storage configurations. First, the basic model enabling wholesale electricity traders to construct energy storage power plants is presented. Second, for a multi-microgrid system with a complementary cold-heat-power multi-energy scenario, a two-stage optimum allocation model is constructed, whereby the upper model calculates the energy storage allocation problem and the lower model calculates the optimal dispatch problem. The lower model's dispatch computation validates the upper configuration model's reasonableness. Finally, the two-layer model is converted to a single-layer model by the KKT condition, and the nonlinear problem is converted to a linear problem with the big-M method. The validity is proved via mathematical examples, and it is demonstrated that the planned energy storage plants by merchants may accomplish resource savings and mutual advantages for both users and wholesale power traders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This paper presents the energy and exergy analysis of thermal power plant Tuzla in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The main aim of this paper is to analyze the components of a 200 MW steam power plant unit in order to identify and quantify the sites with the highest exergy losses and to calculate exergy efficiency values of all components when operating at nominal load. The influence of the change in ambient temperature and block load on the value of exergy losses and exergy efficiency was taken into analysis. The analysis further includes the impact of steam block operation without high-pressure and low-pressure heaters on the exergy efficiency of the steam block. The goal of the analysis is to determine the functional state of individual steam block components after a long period of exploitation and maintenance in order to take appropriate measures to improve their technical performance. Exergy losses during nominal operation of the steam power plant unit are the largest in boiler and amount to 313.42 MW, followed by a turbine with 205.60 MW, condenser 1 with 6.03 MW, condenser 2 with 5.75 MW, while other components of the steam power plant have exergy losses in the range of 0.03 to 2.15 MW. Operation of the unit at nominal load without HPH results in an exergy efficiency decrease from 5.60 to 9.80 %, while in case of operation without HPH and LPH it results in a decrease in exergy efficiency from 9.86 to 16.40 % depending on the pattern used to calculate. The conclusion after the analysis indicates that the biggest exergy losses are in the boiler and turbine and consequently these components have the lowest exergy efficiency values. The increase in ambient temperature has different effects on individual components of the thermal power plant, increasing exergy losses of the boiler while reducing the turbine exergy losses and condensers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the dynamic interactions between large‐scale PV plants and nearby synchronous generators. To this end, a comprehensive model of a PV plant, including the PV arrays characteristic and their voltage controller, DC/DC converter, DC‐link dynamic, DC/AC inverter controllers, and output filter, is obtained. Then, the eigenvalues of the PV plant model are calculated, and it is revealed that the PV plant has a dynamic mode in the sub‐synchronous oscillations (SSOs) range. Furthermore, the modal analysis method is employed, and it is shown that the inductance of the DC/DC converter and the DC‐link capacitor significantly contribute to the PV sub‐synchronous mode. Also, it is shown that this mode oscillations penetrate the grid and increase the risk of sub‐synchronous resonance (SSR). Then, the mechanism of dynamic interactions between large‐scale PV plants and torsional modes of nearby synchronous generators is revealed. This paper also investigates the required conditions for these interactions and shows that solar irradiation level and the DC‐link capacitance are the essential factors that can intensify these interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for energy storage systems is rising together with the proportion of renewable energy sources (RES) in power systems. The highest capacity among the various energy storage systems in power systems is provided by pumped-storage hydropower (PSH). In this paper, the ability of the real-time digital simulator (RTDS), e.g., dSpace–SCALEXIO, to emulate a complex pumped-storage hydropower plant with four units, two common penstocks, a surge tank, and a long headrace tunnel is investigated. The RTDS is the smart brain of an advanced lab setup called power hardware in the loop (PHIL), which is an extremely safe and useful lab system for electrical power system research and testing hardware and methods under various conditions. In this research, the capability of an RTDS to emulate the behavior of a pumped-storage hydropower plant including four Francis pump-turbines, four short penstocks, two common penstocks, a surge tank, and a long headrace tunnel is evaluated. Francis pump-turbines are modelled based on the hill chart-based interpolation and waterways including penstocks and headrace tunnel are modelled based on the polynomial approximation of a hyperbolic function. Finally, the results from the RTDS are presented and discussed. According to the results of the paper, we confirm that the RTDS can accurately emulate the hydraulic, mechanical, and electrical transients of a pumped-storage hydropower plant with a complex configuration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper provides an economic model for the assessment of hydrogen production at the site of an existing thermal power plant, which is then integrated into the existing gas grid. The model uses projections of electricity prices, natural gas prices, and CO2 prices, as well as estimates of the cost of building a power-to-gas system for a 25-year period. The objective of this research is to calculate the yellow hydrogen production price for each lifetime year of the Power-to-gas system to evaluate yellow hydrogen competitiveness compared to the fossil alternatives. We test if an incentive scheme is needed to make this technology economically viable. The research also provides several sensitivity scenarios of electricity, natural gas, and CO2 price changes. Our research results clearly prove that yellow hydrogen is not yet competitive with fossil alternatives and needs incentive mechanisms for the time being. At given natural gas and CO2 prices, the incentive for hydrogen production needs to be 52.90 EUR/MWh in 2025 and 36.18 EUR/MWh in 2050. However, the role of hydrogen in the green transition could be very important as it provides ancillary services and balances energy sources in the power system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the climate crisis worsens, power grids are gradually transforming into a more sustainable state through renewable energy sources (RESs), energy storage systems (ESSs), and smart loads. Virtual power plants (VPP) are an emerging concept that can flexibly integrate distributed energy resources (DERs), managing manage the power output of each DER unit, as well as the power consumption of loads, to balance electricity supply and demand in real time. VPPs can participate in energy markets, enable self-scheduling of RESs, facilitate energy trading and sharing, and provide demand-side frequency control ancillary services (D-FCAS) to enhance the stability of the system frequency. As a result, studies considering VPPs have become the focus of recent energy research, with the purpose of reducing the uncertainty resulting from RESs distributed in the power grid and improving technology related to energy management system (EMS). However, comprehensive reviews of VPPs considering their formation, control techniques, and D-FCAS are still lacking in the literature. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a thorough overview of state-of-the-art VPP technologies for building sustainable power grids in the future. The review mainly considers the development of VPPs, the information transmission and control methods among DERs and loads in VPPs, as well as the relevant technologies for providing D-FCAS from VPPs. This review paper describes the significant economic, social, and environmental benefits of VPPs, as well as the technological advancements, challenges, and possible future research directions in VPP research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kaplan turbines, as one of the well-known hydraulic turbines, are generally utilized worldwide for low-head and high-flow conditions. Any failure in each of the turbine components can result in long-term downtime and high repair costs. In a particular case, if other parts are damaged due to the impact of the broken blades (e.g., the main shaft of the turbine), the whole power plant may be shut down. On the other hand, further research on the primary causes of failures in turbines can help improve the present failure evaluation methodologies in power plants. Hence, the main objective of this paper is to present the major causes of Kaplan turbine failures to prevent excessive damage to the equipment and provide practical solutions for them. In general, turbines are mainly subjected to both Internal Object Damage (IOD) and Foreign Object Damage (FOD). Accordingly, this paper presents a state-of-the-art review of Kaplan turbine failures related to material and physical defects, deficiencies in design, deficits in manufacturing and assembly processes, corrosion failures, fatigue failure, cavitation wear, types of cavitation in hydro turbines, hydro-abrasive problems, and hydro-erosion problems. Eventually, the authors have attempted to discuss practical hints (e.g., nanostructured coatings) to prevent damages and improve the performance of Kaplan turbines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Project SMART (Strategies to Promote Small-Scale Hydro Electricity Production in Europe) from the Intelligent Energy Europe (IEE) program, in which 7 institutions from 5 European states participate, pointed to the important barriers for the expansion of small hydro power plants (SHP) in Europe. One of the main barriers is the lack of suitable methodology and software able to create a clear view of the SHP potential in the given territory, as well as a complete techno-economic analysis for certain locations. Worldwide, there are a certain number of software for this purpose, and will be presented in this paper. However, in practical application for concrete cases, they show certain disadvantages. For example, one software is not able to take into account all the specifics of watercourses and plants; another does not have the option of selecting all types of turbines; in others, the calculation models are based on a limited number of equations that do not describe all possible cases; in some, economic analysis is oversimplified, etc. The aim of this paper is to develop software that is more comprehensive than any existing software. A new software for the techno-economic analysis of SHP is developed using Python and will be presented in this paper. The software is very useful for experts in the field of SHP, but also much wider, for decision-makers, potential investors, and stakeholders, especially in developing countries. It will improve water resources management, disseminate opportunities to investors, and increase the interest of stakeholders to invest in SHP, resulting in their wider use. The software is tested on location for SHP in the Republic of Croatia by comparison with the results obtained by the usual classical calculation. The agreement of the results is satisfactory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generation of photovoltaic power plants is growing rapidly in the last ten years in the world. One of the key factors for the construction of floating photovoltaic power plants is to provide space for their construction. This paper presents statistical indicators of installed capacities of floating photovoltaic power plants, as well as a detailed description of the components of these power plants. Approaches to construction and maintenance recommendations are described in more detail. The basic results of simulations are presented on a concrete example of a floating photovoltaic 1 MW power plant on Lake Modrac. The available areas of artificial lakes in Bosnia and Herzegovina were analysed, and it was shown that the installation of floating photovoltaic power plants on 5% of the surface of artificial lakes would provide around 10% of the total electricity consumption in Bosnia and Herzegovina. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Model predictive control (MPC) is an advanced control strategy which can achieve fast reference tracking response and deal with process constraints, time delay and multivariable problems. However, thermal processes in coal-fired power plants are usually difficult to model accurately, which limits the application of MPC to thermal power plants. Methods: To solve the problem, this paper proposes a process-model-free method for MPC via a reference model (RM)-based controller, i.e., a desired dynamic equational (DDE) proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller (DDE-PID). Results and Discussion: The DDE-PID can provide the design model and enhance the disturbance rejection ability for MPC. Simulations and results of field tests on a coal-fired unit show the superiorities of the proposed controller in reference tracking, disturbance rejection and robustness, which indicates the promising prospect of the field application of the MPC with DDE-PID, or MPC-DDE in short, to thermal power plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermal power plants (TPPs) are critical to supplying energy to society, and ensuring their safe and efficient operation is a top priority. To minimize maintenance shutdowns and costs, modern TPPs have adopted advanced fault detection and diagnosis (FDD) techniques. These FDD approaches can be divided into three main categories: model-based, data-driven-based, and statistical-based methods. Despite the practical limitations of model-based methods, a multitude of data-driven and statistical techniques have been developed to monitor key equipment in TPPs. The main contribution of this paper is a systematic review of advanced FDD methods that addresses a literature gap by providing a comprehensive comparison and analysis of these techniques. The review discusses the most relevant FDD strategies, including model-based, data-driven, and statistical-based approaches, and their applications in enhancing the efficiency and reliability of TPPs. Our review highlights the novel and innovative aspects of these techniques and emphasizes their significance in sustainable energy development and the long-term viability of thermal power generation. This review further explores the recent advancements in intelligent FDD techniques for boilers and turbines in TPPs. It also discusses real-world applications, and analyzes the limitations and challenges of current approaches. The paper highlights the need for further research and development in this field, and outlines potential future directions to improve the safety, efficiency, and reliability of intelligent TPPs. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the current state-of-the-art in FDD techniques for TPPs, and serves as a guide for future research and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]