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Rationale: Obesity is characterized by elevated pleural pressure (Ppl) and worsening atelectasis during mechanical ventilation in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Objectives: To determine the effects of a lung recruitment maneuver (LRM) in the presence of elevated Ppl on hemodynamics, left and right ventricular pressure, and pulmonary vascular resistance. We hypothesized that elevated Ppl protects the cardiovascular system against high airway pressure and prevents lung overdistension. Methods: First, an interventional crossover trial in adult subjects with ARDS and a body mass index ≥ 35 kg/m2 (n = 21) was performed to explore the hemodynamic consequences of the LRM. Second, cardiovascular function was studied during low and high positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) in a model of swine with ARDS and high Ppl (n = 9) versus healthy swine with normal Ppl (n = 6). Measurements and Main Results: Subjects with ARDS and obesity (body mass index = 57 ± 12 kg/m2) after LRM required an increase in PEEP of 8 (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 7–10) cm H2O above traditional ARDS Network settings to improve lung function, oxygenation and V./Q. matching, without impairment of hemodynamics or right heart function. ARDS swine with high Ppl demonstrated unchanged transmural left ventricular pressure and systemic blood pressure after the LRM protocol. Pulmonary arterial hypertension decreased (8 [95% CI, 13–4] mm Hg), as did vascular resistance (1.5 [95% CI, 2.2–0.9] Wood units) and transmural right ventricular pressure (10 [95% CI, 15–6] mm Hg) during exhalation. LRM and PEEP decreased pulmonary vascular resistance and normalized the V./Q. ratio. Conclusions: High airway pressure is required to recruit lung atelectasis in patients with ARDS and class III obesity but causes minimal overdistension. In addition, patients with ARDS and class III obesity hemodynamically tolerate LRM with high airway pressure. Clinical trial registered with www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT 02503241).

Independent lung ventilation, though infrequently used in the critical care setting, has been reported as a rescue strategy for patients in respiratory failure resulting from severe unilateral lung pathology. This involves isolating and ventilating the right and left lung differently, using separate ventilators. Here, we describe our experience with independent lung ventilation in a patient with unilateral diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, who presented with severe hypoxemic respiratory failure despite maximal ventilatory support. Conventional ventilation in this scenario leads to preferential distribution of tidal volume to the non-diseased lung causing over distension and inadvertent volume trauma. Since each lung has a different compliance and respiratory mechanics, instituting separate ventilation strategies to each lung could potentially minimize lung injury. Based on review of literature, we provide a detailed description of indications and procedures for establishing independent lung ventilation, and also provide an algorithm for management and weaning a patient from independent lung ventilation.

Background Increased pleural pressure affects the mechanics of breathing of people with class III obesity (BMI > 40 kg/m2). Research Question What are the acute effects of CPAP titrated to match pleural pressure on cardiopulmonary function in spontaneously breathing patients with class III obesity? Study design and Methods We enrolled six participants with BMI within normal range (control participants, group I) and 12 patients with class III obesity (group II) divided into subgroups: IIa, BMI of 40 to 50 kg/m2; and IIb, BMI of ≥ 50 kg/m2. The study was performed in two phases: in phase 1, participants were supine and breathing spontaneously at atmospheric pressure, and in phase 2, participants were supine and breathing with CPAP titrated to match their end-expiratory esophageal pressure in the absence of CPAP. Respiratory mechanics, esophageal pressure, and hemodynamic data were collected, and right heart function was evaluated by transthoracic echocardiography. Results The levels of CPAP titrated to match pleural pressure in group I, subgroup IIa, and subgroup IIb were 6 ± 2 cmH2O, 12 ± 3 cmH2O, and 18 ± 4 cmH2O, respectively. In both subgroups IIa and IIb, CPAP titrated to match pleural pressure decreased minute ventilation (IIa, P = .03; IIb, P = .03), improved peripheral oxygen saturation (IIa, P = .04; IIb, P = .02), improved homogeneity of tidal volume distribution between ventral and dorsal lung regions (IIa, P = .22; IIb, P = .03), and decreased work of breathing (IIa, P Interpretation In ambulatory patients with class III obesity, CPAP titrated to match pleural pressure decreased work of breathing and improved respiratory mechanics while maintaining hemodynamic stability, without impairing right heart function. Trial Registry ClinicalTrials.gov; No.: NCT02523352; URL: www.clinicaltrials.gov

Effective management of cardiogenic shock (CS) is hampered by a lack of evidence-based information. This is a high-mortality condition, without clear, evidence-based guidelines for perioperative management, specifically-a lack of target endpoints for treatment (e.g.: mean arterial pressure or oxygenation), utility of regional care systems or the benefits of palliative care. The Acute Cardiovascular Care Association (ACCA) of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) recently published a position statement that aimed to offer contemporary guidance on the diagnosis and treatment of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) complicated by CS. Herein, we review this complex clinical topic and review the ACCA statement on AMI associated with CS, with a focus on relevance to perioperative management.

Acute heart failure (AHF) is an under recognized yet potentially lethal complication after liver transplantation (LT) surgery. The increase in incidence of liver transplantation amongst high-risk patients and the leniency in the criteria for transplantation, predisposes these patients to postoperative AHF and the antecedent morbidity and mortality. The inability of conventional preoperative cardiovascular testing to accurately identify patients at risk for post-LT AHF poses a considerable challenge to clinicians caring for these patients. Even if high-risk patients are identified, there is considerable ambiguity in the candidacy for transplantation as well as optimization strategies that could potentially prevent the development of AHF in the postoperative period. The intraoperative and postoperative management of patients who develop AHF is also challenging and requires a well-coordinated multidisciplinary approach. The use of mechanical circulatory support in patients with refractory heart failure has the potential to improve outcomes but its use in this complex patient population can be associated with significant complications and requires a stringent risk-benefit analysis on a case-by-case basis.

A recent estimate suggests that one in five deaths globally are associated with sepsis (1) . To date, no targeted treatment is available for this syndrome, likely due to substantial patient heterogeneity (2,3) and our lack of insight into sepsis immunopathology (4) . These issues are highlighted by the current COVID-19 pandemic, wherein many clinical manifestations of severe SARS-CoV-2 infection parallel bacterial sepsis (5–8) . We previously reported an expanded CD14+ monocyte state, MS1, in patients with bacterial sepsis or non-infectious critical illness, and validated its expansion in sepsis across thousands of patients using public transcriptomic data (9) . Despite its marked expansion in the circulation of bacterial sepsis patients, its relevance to viral sepsis and association with disease outcomes have not been examined. In addition, the ontogeny and function of this monocyte state remain poorly characterized. Using public transcriptomic data, we show that the expression of the MS1 program is associated with sepsis mortality and is up-regulated in monocytes from patients with severe COVID-19. We found that blood plasma from bacterial sepsis or COVID-19 patients with severe disease induces emergency myelopoiesis and expression of the MS1 program, which are dependent on the cytokines IL-6 and IL-10. Finally, we demonstrate that MS1 cells are broadly immunosuppressive, similar to monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and have decreased responsiveness to stimulation. Our findings highlight the utility of regulatory myeloid cells in sepsis prognosis, and the role of systemic cytokines in inducing emergency myelopoiesis during severe bacterial and SARS-CoV-2 infections.

The vast clinical heterogeneity seen in patients with critical illness provides ample opportunity for instituting personalized medicine. It can improve various aspects of critical care including risk stratification, diagnosis, treatment plans and response, prognostication, and research. Although the current clinical utilization is limited, tools abound in the research space. They include biomarkers, and methods using omics-based technology and large population level data. For example, Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) is biomarker for early identification of acute kidney injury, and soluble receptor for advanced glycation end-products (sRAGE) may identify high-risk patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Omics-based techniques can help with early diagnosis, identifying unknown endotypes, and to investigate endotype specific treatment. For instance, a hyperinflammatory endotype of acute respiratory distress syndrome identified using latent class analysis identifies patients who might preferentially benefit from restrictive fluid management or steroids. Also, various gene transcription panels have been used to differentiate sepsis from non-infectious inflammation. Single nucleotide polymorphisms can be used to predict variations in clinical response to certain medications like opioids, clopidogrel and coumadin. With availability of detailed physiological and laboratory data through electronic medical records, complex machine learning algorithms and artificial intelligence-based systems are being used to predict sepsis and acute kidney injury. Personalized medicine in critical care setting is rife with challenges, and many of these tools need further research and development to be incorporated into clinical practice. We envision a future where personalized medicine guides all aspects of decision making and therapy, thereby, improve outcomes in critically ill patients.

Cytokines in plasma from sepsis or severe COVID-19 patients induce production of suppressive myeloid cells from hematopoietic progenitors in vitro., Myeloid suppressive cells enter the arena Patients with bacterial sepsis or severe COVID-19 have increased numbers of suppressive myeloid cells in their blood. Reyes et al. now show that similar cells can be induced by treatment of healthy human bone marrow progenitor cells in culture with plasma from patients with bacterial sepsis or severe COVID-19. The differentiation of suppressive myeloid cells in this cell model depended on the cytokines IL-6 and IL-10, indicating a role for systemic factors in inducing myeloid dysregulation in patients with severe infections., Bacterial sepsis and severe COVID-19 share similar clinical manifestations and are both associated with dysregulation of the myeloid cell compartment. We previously reported an expanded CD14+ monocyte state, MS1, in patients with bacterial sepsis and validated expansion of this cell subpopulation in publicly available transcriptomics data. Here, using published datasets, we show that the gene expression program associated with MS1 correlated with sepsis severity and was up-regulated in monocytes from patients with severe COVID-19. To examine the ontogeny and function of MS1 cells, we developed a cellular model for inducing CD14+ MS1 monocytes from healthy bone marrow hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). We found that plasma from patients with bacterial sepsis or COVID-19 induced myelopoiesis in HSPCs in vitro and expression of the MS1 gene program in monocytes and neutrophils that differentiated from these HSPCs. Furthermore, we found that plasma concentrations of IL-6, and to a lesser extent IL-10, correlated with increased myeloid cell output from HSPCs in vitro and enhanced expression of the MS1 gene program. We validated the requirement for these two cytokines to induce the MS1 gene program through CRISPR-Cas9 editing of their receptors in HSPCs. Using this cellular model system, we demonstrated that induced MS1 cells were broadly immunosuppressive and showed decreased responsiveness to stimulation with a synthetic RNA analog. Our in vitro study suggests a potential role for systemic cytokines in inducing myelopoiesis during severe bacterial or SARS-CoV-2 infection.

With increasing use of cardiovascular implantable electronic devices, the need for lead extractions has increased to an annual volume of more than 10,000 extractions worldwide. This article provides a focused clinical commentary on the perioperative management, identification, and treatment of life-threatening complications associated with lead extractions. In addition, a summary of indications, techniques, and lead extraction complications is provided. Although uncommon, lead extractions are associated with a consistent rate of major procedure-related complications and mortality. Major life-threatening complications include vascular laceration, cardiac avulsion, hemothorax, pericardial effusion, and cardiac arrest. Comprehensive preoperative risk assessment and adequate planning and preparedness are crucial to decreasing all procedure-related adverse events. The location of the procedure (electrophysiology suite v hybrid operating room) and the nature of cardiac surgical backup are determined after meticulous risk stratification. In addition to decisions on vascular access, invasive monitoring, and modality of rhythm support, transesophageal echocardiography plays a crucial role in early diagnosis, timely management, and potential prevention of these complications.

Background Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) is often preserved in patients with aortic stenosis and thus cannot distinguish between normal myocardial contractile function and subclinical dysfunction. Global longitudinal strain and strain rate (SR), which measure myocardial deformation, are robust indicators of myocardial function and can detect subtle myocardial dysfunction that is not apparent with conventional echocardiographic measures. Strain and SR may better predict postoperative outcomes than LVEF. The primary aim of our investigation was to assess the association between global longitudinal strain and serious postoperative outcomes in patients with aortic stenosis having aortic valve replacement. Secondarily, we also assessed the associations between global longitudinal SR and LVEF and the outcomes. Methods In this post hoc analysis of data from a randomized clinical trial (NCT01187329), we examined the association between measures of myocardial function and the following outcomes: (1) need for postoperative inotropic/vasopressor support; (2) prolonged hospitalization (>7 days); and (3) postoperative atrial fibrillation. Standardized transesophageal echocardiographic examinations were performed after anesthetic induction. Myocardial deformation was measured using speckle-tracking echocardiography. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess associations between measures of myocardial function and outcomes, adjusted for potential confounding factors. The predictive ability of global longitudinal strain, SR, and LVEF was assessed as area under receiver operating characteristics curves (AUCs). Results Of 100 patients enrolled in the clinical trial, 86 patients with aortic stenosis had acceptable images for global longitudinal strain analysis. Primarily, worse intraoperative global longitudinal strain was associated with prolonged hospitalization (odds ratio [98.3% confidence interval], 1.22 [1.01-1.47] per 1% decrease [absolute value] in strain; P = .012), but not with other outcomes. Secondarily, worse global longitudinal SR was associated with prolonged hospitalization (odds ratio [99.7% confidence interval], 1.68 [1.01-2.79] per 0.1 second(-1) decrease [absolute value] in SR; P = .003), but not other outcomes. LVEF was not associated with any outcomes. Global longitudinal SR was the best predictor for prolonged hospitalization (AUC, 0.72), followed by global longitudinal strain (AUC, 0.67) and LVEF (AUC, 0.62). Conclusions Global longitudinal strain and SR are useful predictors of prolonged hospitalization in patients with aortic stenosis having an aortic valve replacement.

Epidural anesthesia and analgesia has a reported failure rate ranging from 13% to 32%. We describe a technique using colour Doppler and M-mode ultrasonography to determine the position of the epidural catheter after placement in adults. This retrospective review included 37 adult patients who received postoperative epidural analgesia and underwent technically difficult epidural catheter placement. The demographic characteristics, type of surgery, use of ultrasonography, method of insertion, intervertebral level, and success of epidural localization using colour Doppler were noted for each patient. Pain scores on postoperative day 1 and the presence of a patchy block were also reviewed. Colour Doppler study helped to indicate the catheter’s path from the skin to the epidural space during saline injection in 33 patients (89%). Saline flow within the epidural space (catheter tip confirmation) was successfully detected with colour Doppler in 25 patients (67.5%) and with M-mode ultrasonography in 28 patients (75%). Appropriate dermatomal analgesia was noted in 35 patients (94.5%) during local anesthetic infusion. Our preliminary data suggest the feasibility of using colour Doppler and M-mode ultrasonography to confirm proper epidural catheter placement.

Although epidural analgesia is widely used for pain relief, it is associated with a significant failure rate. Loss of resistance technique, tactile feedback from the needle, and surface landmarks are traditionally used to guide the epidural needle tip into the epidural space (EDS). The aim of this narrative review is to critically appraise new and emerging technologies for identification of EDS and their potential role in the future. The PubMed, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Clinical Studies, and Web of Science databases were searched using predecided search strategies, yielding 1048 results. After careful review of abstracts and full texts, 42 articles were selected to be included. Newer techniques for localization of EDS can be broadly classified into techniques that (1) guide the needle to the EDS, (2) identify needle entry into the EDS, and (3) confirm catheter location in EDS. An ideal method should be easy to learn and perform, easily reproducible with high sensitivity and specificity, identifies inadvertent intrathecal and intravascular catheter placements with ease, feasible in perioperative setting and have a cost-benefit advantage. Though none of them in their current stages of development qualify as an ideal method, many show tremendous potential. Some techniques are useful in patients with difficult spinal anatomy and infants, and thus are complementary to traditional methods. In addition to improving the existing technology, future research should aim at proving the superiority of these techniques over traditional methods, specifically regarding successful EDS localization, better safety profile, and a favorable cost-benefit ratio.

Although most patients presenting for liver transplantation have normal left ventricular function, some develop left ventricular failure after transplantation. The primary objective of our study was to determine the predictors of systolic heart failure (HF) occurring immediately after liver transplantation. Its etiology, prospects of recovery, and factors associated with nonrecovery were also studied. Liver transplantations performed at our institution from January 2006 to February 2015 were evaluated using prospectively collected institutional registries. Patients with echocardiographically documented decline in ejection fraction to

Severe blunt thoracic trauma leads to marked respiratory compromise resulting from rib fractures and lung contusion. This chapter describes the role of pulmonary function testing in understanding the pathophysiology of thoracic trauma. The application of bedside pulmonary function tests to determine early risk stratification after thoracic trauma is also presented. The acute impact, course of pulmonary recovery, and the long-term effects of flail chest and lung contusion are described in detail.

With the increasing age of recipients undergoing orthotopic liver transplant (OLT), there is need for better risk stratification among them. Our study aims to identify predictors of poor outcome among OLT recipients ≥ 60 yr of age. All patients who underwent OLT at Cleveland Clinic from January 2004 to April 2010 were included. Baseline patient characteristics and post-OLT outcomes (mortality, graft failure, length of stay, and major post-OLT cardiovascular events) were obtained from prospectively collected institutional registry. Among patients ≥ 60 yr of age, multivariate regression modeling was performed to identify independent predictors of poor outcome. Of the 738 patients included, 223 (30.2%) were ≥ 60 yr. Hepatic encephalopathy, platelet counts45,000/μL, total serum bilirubin3.5 mg/dL, and serum albumin2.65 mg/dL independently predicted poor short-term outcomes. The presence of pre-OLT coronary artery disease and arrhythmia were independent predictors of poor long-term outcomes. Cardiac causes represented the second most common cause of mortality among the elderly cohort. Despite that, this carefully selected cohort of older OLT recipients had outcomes that were comparable with the younger recipients. Thus, our results show the need for better pre-OLT evaluation and optimization, and for closer post-OLT surveillance, of cardiovascular disease among the elderly.

Retrograde type A aortic dissection that arises immediately after open replacement of the thoracoabdominal aorta is a rare and potentially lethal complication that has only been reported twice previously. A 74-year-old man with a history of expanding Crawford type I thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm presented for open surgical repair. The intraoperative course was unremarkable. However, intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography after the repair revealed type A aortic dissection extending up to the sinotubular junction. Subsequently, emergent aortic arch repair was performed under deep hypothermic circulatory arrest. Early diagnosis with transesophageal echocardiography and optimal cerebral protection were instrumental in the successful outcome of this repair.

BACKGROUND The immediate effect of aortic valve replacement (AVR) for aortic stenosis on perioperative myocardial function is unclear. Left ventricular (LV) function may be impaired by cardioplegia-induced myocardial arrest and ischemia-reperfusion injury, especially in patients with LV hypertrophy. Alternatively, LV function may improve when afterload is reduced after AVR. The right ventricle (RV), however, experiences cardioplegic arrest without benefiting from improved loading conditions. Which of these effects on myocardial function dominate in patients undergoing AVR for aortic stenosis has not been thoroughly explored. Our primary objective is thus to characterize the effect of intraoperative events on LV function during AVR using echocardiographic measures of myocardial deformation. Second, we evaluated RV function. METHODS In this supplementary analysis of 100 patients enrolled in a clinical trial (NCT01187329), 97 patients underwent AVR for aortic stenosis. Of these patients, 95 had a standardized intraoperative transesophageal echocardiographic examination of systolic and diastolic function performed before surgical incision and repeated after chest closure. Echocardiographic images were analyzed off-line for global longitudinal myocardial strain and strain rate using 2D speckle-tracking echocardiography. Myocardial deformation assessed at the beginning of surgery was compared with the end of surgery using paired t tests corrected for multiple comparisons. RESULTS LV volumes and arterial blood pressure decreased, and heart rate increased at the end of surgery. Echocardiographic images were acceptable for analysis in 72 patients for LV strain, 67 for LV strain rate, and 54 for RV strain and strain rate. In 72 patients with LV strain images, 9 patients required epinephrine, 22 required norepinephrine, and 2 required both at the end of surgery. LV strain did not change at the end of surgery compared with the beginning of surgery (difference: 0.7 [97.6% confidence interval, -0.2 to 1.5]%; P = 0.07), whereas LV systolic strain rate improved (became more negative) (-0.3 [-0.4 to -0.2] s; P < 0.001). In contrast, RV systolic strain worsened (became less negative) at the end of surgery (difference: 4.6 [3.1 to 6.0]%; P < 0.001) although RV systolic strain rate was unchanged (0.0 [97.6% confidence interval, -0.1 to 0.1]; P = 0.83). CONCLUSIONS LV function improved after replacement of a stenotic aortic valve demonstrated by improved longitudinal strain rate. In contrast, RV function, assessed by longitudinal strain, was reduced.

Background: The clinical significance of Chiari’s network identified by echocardiogram is not yet established. A few authors have hypothesized that Chiari’s network may be associated with a patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm and paradoxical embolism. We set out to better understand the relationships of arterial embolic events and echocardiographic diagnosis of Chiari’s network in our adult population. Methods: We reviewed unique subject-adult transesophageal echocardiograms (TEE) performed at UIHC between November 2010 and March 2015 (n=3,703); we identified subjects with transesophageal echocardiographic diagnosis of Chiari’s network. Chiari’s network was observed in 6.2% of all TEE studies (n=229); males represented 59.8% with mean age of 61.5±16.3 years and mean left ventricular ejection fraction 53.8% ± 13.6%. Retrospective chart review was then performed to evaluate clinical variables encompassing a median [IQR] follow up of 8 months [2-19]. Results: Patent foramen ovale and atrial septal aneurysm were present in 22.3% and 11.4% subjects respectively. Approximately one half of patients (n=115, 50.2%) experienced at least one systemic embolic event by the end of the follow up period. Of these, 84 (36.7%) and 30 (13.1%) patients suffered stroke and transient ischemic events respectively. The all-cause mortality rate was high at 13.5%. Atrial tachyarrhythmia was present in 59 subjects (25.8%). The rate of systemic embolic events was higher in those without atrial tachyarrhythmia compared to those with atrial tachyarrhythmia (58.2% vs. 27.1%, p=0.000; OR (95% CI),0.267 (0.139-0.511). Antithrombotic therapy was prescribed in 79% of all subjects, 86.4% of patients with atrial tachyarrhythmia and 95.5% of patients with systemic embolic events. Conclusions: Patients with Chiari’s network have a high incidence of atrial tachyarrhythmia and systemic embolic events, primarily embolic stroke and transient ischemic events. Systemic embolic events occurred at significantly higher rates in subjects with Chiari’s network and no atrial tachyarrhythmia than those with atrial tachyarrhythmia. Future studies are warranted to further elucidate the risk of thromboembolic events in patients with Chiari’s network.

The contribution of aortic valve (AV) cusp asymmetry to the future development of aortic stenosis (AS) has not been studied.Of the 412,458 patients that underwent echocardiography between January 2003 and January 2011 at the Cleveland Clinic, 34,326 with aortic stenosis (AS) were identified from the Echocardiography Database. Among these patients, 5,830 had undergone echocardiography on more than one occasion. The review identified 71 patients who had tricuspid AV without stenosis, sclerosis or calcification, who met the study criteria, and who ultimately developed AS at a mean of 56.5 ± 19.4 months after the initial echocardiogram. Comprehensive echocardiographic AV cusp measurements taken from these echocardiograms were compared to those of 71 age- and gender-matched control subjects without AS.In the AS group, 11 patients (15.4%) had three equal-sized AV cusps, six (8.4%) had two equal-sized cusps, and 54 (76.1%) had three different-sized cusps. In the control group, 70 subjects (98.6%) had three equal-sized AV cusps, none had two equal-sized cusps, and one subject (1.4%) had three different-sized cusps. The average asymmetry index (AIx; %) among all the corresponding cusp measurements was significantly larger in the AS group (p = 0.000). Among the 71 AS patients, 32 developed mild AS, 30 moderate AS, and nine severe AS. The average AIx did not differ significantly based on AS severity.The presence of asymmetry among AV cusps is strongly associated with the future development of AS. The present data suggest that a non-laminar flow secondary to an asymmetric valve may predispose the AV to become stenotic.

A teenager was admitted to an outside hospital ED following an episode of melena. He had been complaining of intermittent abdominal pain, nausea, malaise, and easy fatigability for 2 months, with significant worsening of symptoms 2 weeks prior to this episode. He had no significant medical, surgical, or family history. On presentation at the outside ED, he was found to be profoundly icteric and encephalopathic. Initial laboratories suggested anemia, acute kidney injury, and acute liver failure, leading to a presumptive diagnosis of acute fulminant liver failure necessitating transfer to our institution.

Chiari network and atrial septal aneurysm (ASA) are considered “normal” anatomic variants though ASA has been associated with embolic events. The relationship of these variants with cardiomyopathy, cardiac conduction abnormalities and arrhythmias has not been described. From all adult patients