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Background: Trichomonas gallinae is a protozoan parasite responsible for canker in pigeons, a debilitating disease that causes significant economic losses. While metronidazole (MTZ) remains the primary treatment, the emergence of resistance is a growing concern. This study investigated the efficacy of eugenol and its nanoemulsion formulation against T. gallinae in both in vitro and in vivo settings., Aim: To evaluate the anti-trichomonal activity of eugenol, eugenol nanoemulsion, and MTZ against T. gallinae using in vitro and in vivo models., Methods: In vitro , T. gallinae trophozoites were exposed to varying concentrations of eugenol and eugenol nanoemulsion (0.625-10 μg/ml), as well as MTZ (25 μg/ml). Cytotoxicity was assessed using Vero cells. In vivo , 120 pigeons were experimentally infected and treated with either eugenol (10 mg/kg), eugenol nanoemulsion (10 mg/kg), MTZ (25 mg/kg), or left untreated. Treatments were administered daily for 5 days., Results: In vitro , both eugenol and its nanoemulsion at 10 μg/ml achieved 100% lethality of T. gallinae after 48 hours, while MTZ reached the same effect within 24 hours. In vivo , MTZ and eugenol (at 25 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg, respectively) resulted in 100% recovery of infected pigeons 5 days post-treatment. Notably, eugenol nanoemulsion (10 mg/kg) achieved 100% recovery within just 4 days post-treatment., Conclusion: This study highlights the potential of eugenol and its nanoemulsion as alternative treatments for T. gallinae infections in pigeons. The eugenol nanoemulsion, in particular, demonstrated promising results with faster recovery rates compared to both MTZ and eugenol, suggesting it may be especially effective against MTZ-resistant strains. Further research is warranted to explore the efficacy and safety of these agents for treating T. gallinae infections in pigeons., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

An intracoelomic mass was palpated on an annual exam of a 24-year-old male Solomon Island eclectus parrot ( Eclectus roratus solomonensis ). The initial diagnostic workup included a complete blood count, plasma biochemistry panel, and coelomic ultrasound. Computed tomography was highly suggestive of a testicular mass. Tamoxifen and the gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists leuprolide and deslorelin were administered as neoadjunctive endocrine therapies. Biopsy and histologic examination confirmed a testicular mass consistent with a round cell tumor. Four doses of carboplatin 15 mg/kg IV were administered as neoadjunctive chemotherapy, and testicular size decreased by approximately 95%. The remaining gross tumor was removed via orchidectomy with clean but narrow margins. Seven months following surgery, a contrast CT scan did not show any evidence of recurrence of or metastasis from the original mass. This is the first report of successful treatment of a testicular tumor in a psittacine with neoadjuvant chemotherapy and orchidectomy.

Aspergillosis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in penguins, with triazole antifungal drugs being commonly used for prophylaxis and treatment. This report describes 15 cases of fatal hemolysis associated with liquid itraconazole and voriconazole formulations administered to African penguins ( Spheniscus demersus ) from four institutions. All penguins underwent stressful events (e.g. relocation, induced molt) and were administered commercial liquid itraconazole formulations or compounded voriconazole liquid suspension. Observed clinical signs in affected penguins prior to death included hyporexia, weight loss, lethargy, dyspnea, red-tinged droppings, and obtunded mentation. Intra- and extravascular hemolysis and hemoglobinuric nephrosis were the primary pathologic manifestations on postmortem examination. The concentration-dependent hemolytic potentials of itraconazole, voriconazole, and commercial and compounded vehicle suspensions were evaluated in vitro by exposing chicken whole blood as a surrogate for penguin blood. Hemoglobin content in blood plasma was then measured by spectrophotometry. Neither itraconazole nor voriconazole alone induced hemolysis in vitro. The vehicle ingredients sorbitol and hydromellose induced hemolysis, but not at predicted plasma levels in chicken erythrocytes, suggesting neither the azole antifungals nor their major vehicles alone were likely to contribute to hemolysis in vivo in these penguins. Potential mechanisms of toxicosis include generation of an unmeasured reactive metabolite causing hemolysis, preexisting erythrocyte fragility, or species-specific differences in hemolytic thresholds that were not assessed in the chicken erythrocyte model. More research is needed on the potential for toxicosis of azole antifungal drugs and carrier molecules in this and other avian species.

In human and veterinary medicine, the treatment of synovial cysts involves medical or surgical approach. When medical treatment is chosen, triamcinolone acetonide is one of the most used drugs. In this case, intracystic triamcinolone was administered for the treatment of a non-infectious elbow synovial cyst in a subadult female Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), unable to fly. The bird was brought to a wildlife rescue center after an aerial fight with a conspecific. After the treatment, no clinically detectable adverse effects were noted and there was no recurrence within two weeks. Given the improvement of the clinical conditions and the recovery of flight ability, the animal was released back into the wild 17 days after administration of the drug.

This review article describes the current knowledge about the use of antiviral chemotherapeutics in avian species, such as farm poultry and companion birds. Specific therapeutics are described in alphabetical order including classic antiviral drugs, such as acyclovir, abacavir, adefovir, amantadine, didanosine, entecavir, ganciclovir, interferon, lamivudine, penciclovir, famciclovir, oseltamivir, ribavirin, and zidovudine, repurposed drugs, such as ivermectin and nitazoxanide, which were originally used as antiparasitic drugs, and some others substances showing antiviral activity, such as ampligen, azo derivates, docosanol, fluoroarabinosylpyrimidine nucleosides, and novel peptides. Most of them have only been used for research purposes and are not widely used in clinical practice because of a lack of essential pharmacokinetic and safety data. Suggested future research directions are also highlighted.

Objective: To retrospectively evaluate the clinical use of voriconazole in psittacine patients for the treatment of suspected respiratory fungal infections., Animals: 14 client-owned psittacine birds., Methods: Medical records were searched from 2012 to 2023 for voriconazole use in psittacines. Species, age, clinical signs, physical examination findings, CT reports, bloodwork results, treatment, and outcome were obtained from the records or client follow-up., Results: African grey parrots were the most prevalent species (8/14). Dyspnea (9/14) and abnormal respiratory auscultation (11/14) were the most common examination abnormalities. An initial CT was performed in all cases, and pneumonia (10/14) and air sac disease (9/14) were the most common findings, with 8 cases having both pulmonary and air sac disease. Voriconazole doses ranged from 10 to 21 mg/kg (median, 16 mg/kg), with most cases prescribed as every-12-hour frequency (12/14). Three of 14 (21%) cases died or were euthanized within 24 days of diagnosis. One case was euthanized at 311 days, and 6 cases were lost to follow-up. Four of 14 (29%) cases lived > 12 months from diagnosis. Two of these cases cleared clinical infection after receiving voriconazole at 17 to 18 mg/kg (q 12 h). No adverse effects attributable to voriconazole were reported., Clinical Relevance: Voriconazole can be safely used for the treatment of suspected fungal respiratory infection in psittacines. However, the prognosis for resolution is guarded, and prolonged treatment and repeated diagnostic imaging are necessary in many cases.

Veterinary hospitals house patient populations with diverse infectious statuses, microbiota, and histories of prior antibiotic therapy. Choanal swabs are commonly used for assessing the upper respiratory tract of birds for bacterial disease, with the samples submitted for cytologic testing and/or culture and antimicrobial sensitivity testing. The aim of this retrospective study was to identify and quantify bacteria isolated from choanal swabs collected from psittacine patients at a veterinary teaching hospital in Mexico City, Mexico. Data regarding bacterial isolates from choanal swabs were obtained from the medical records of companion psittacines suspected of upper respiratory bacterial disease that presented between November 2015 and December 2022. A total of 47.8% (175 of 366) of the bacterial isolates were from specimens obtained from red-lored Amazons ( Amazona autumnalis ). Gram-negative bacteria predominated, with 27 different genera identified. Klebsiella , Staphylococcus, and Escherichia were the most frequently isolated genera. A total of 90.4% (331 of 366) of the isolates were resistant to at least 1 antibiotic tested in the sensitivity panel, and a single Klebsiella isolate was resistant to 13 different antibiotics. Gentamicin had a high percentage of efficacy (79.5%; 182 of 229) against the bacterial isolates, whereas isolates tested against sulfonamide-trimethoprim (46.7%, 98 of 210), streptomycin (43.8%; 88 of 201), and clindamycin (12.9%; 15 of 116) had susceptibilities <50%. This is the first study to report common bacterial isolates and their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns from choanal swab samples collected from companion psittacines suspected of upper respiratory disease in Mexico. Clinicians can use the information presented in this study as a guide for therapeutic decision-making when managing upper respiratory bacterial infections in companion psittacine patients.

Objective: To determine if a cytochrome (CYP) P450 enzyme inhibitor can maintain therapeutic plasma levels of voriconazole when administered orally., Animals: 11 healthy, common ravens (Corvus corax)., Methods: Birds were randomly assigned to pilot study groups to receive voriconazole orally alone or combined with a CYP inhibitor. Pilot studies with 3 CYP inhibitors launched the main study using ciprofloxacin (20 mg/kg) followed 1 hour later by voriconazole (6 mg/kg) every 12 hours for 14 days. Plasma voriconazole concentrations were measured at various time points by HPLC-MS. The study period lasted from September 2016 to December 2020., Results: The birds failed to maintain therapeutic plasma levels of voriconazole during multidose administration alone or following preadministration with various CYP inhibitors. For the 14-day study period, voriconazole reached a maximum plasma concentration of 2.99 μg/mL with a time-to-peak drug concentration of 1.2 hours following preadministration of ciprofloxacin. One bird was removed from the study due to lethargy, but the other birds completed the study without incident., Clinical Relevance: Ciprofloxacin (20 mg/kg) followed by voriconazole (6 mg/kg) maintained the concentration of voriconazole within the recommended therapeutic range of 0.5 to 5 μg/mL without toxicity. Ciprofloxacin prevented the saturable metabolism of voriconazole and maintained these levels for the study duration. This drug combination could be used in the treatment of chronic aspergillosis in the common raven.

A 12-year-old male eclectus parrot ( Eclectus roratus ) was referred for evaluation of coelomic distention. Computed tomography and blood work revealed coelomic effusion with free coelomic mineral-attenuating material and elevations in the bile acids and aspartate aminotransferase activity, respectively. Coelomic effusion was consistent with macrophagic inflammation with abundant intracellular lipids. Initial treatment with meloxicam resulted in minimal patient improvement. Disseminated xanthogranulomatous inflammation was suspected based on imaging and diagnostic laboratory results, which were consistent with those previously reported. Biopsy samples of liver tissue and intracoelomic masses confirmed this diagnosis. Treatment was initiated with prednisolone 1 mg/kg/d for 6 months, followed by 0.5 mg/kg/d for 3 months. Clinical improvement was assessed based on owner evaluation, plasma bile acid concentrations, and repeated computed tomographic scans. After 2 months of treatment, the owner reported improved behavior and appetite; this persisted throughout treatment and when the bird was reexamined 17 months following the cessation of steroid therapy. Bile acid concentrations were normal 10 months after the prednisolone therapy was discontinued. Diagnostic imaging showed minimal coelomic effusion 10 months after the last prednisolone dose was administered, with improved ventilation of the air sacs and static to improved dystrophic mineral foci. This report describes the antemortem diagnosis and treatment of disseminated coelomic xanthogranulomatous disease in a psittacine species, with an observed measurable therapeutic response.

Trichomonas gallinae is a protozoan parasite that is the causative agent of trichomoniasis, and infects captive and wild bird species throughout the world. Although metronidazole has been the drug of choice against trichomoniasis for decades, most Trichomonas gallinae strains have developed resistance. Therefore, drugs with new modes of action or targets are urgently needed. Here, we report the development and application of a cell-based CCK-8 method for the high-throughput screening and identification of new inhibitors of Trichomonas gallinae as a beginning point for the development of new treatments for trichomoniasis. We performed the high-throughput screening of 173 anti-parasitic compounds, and found 16 compounds that were potentially effective against Trichomonas gallinae. By measuring the median inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) and median cytotoxic concentration (CC 50 ), we identified 3 potentially safe and effective compounds against Trichomonas gallinae: anisomycin, fumagillin, and MG132. In conclusion, this research successfully established a high-throughput screening method for compounds and identified 3 new safe and effective compounds against Trichomonas gallinae, providing a new treatment scheme for trichomoniasis., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

A 16-year-old male Congo African grey parrot ( Psittacus erithacus ) was presented with an ulcerated wing mass that was excised and diagnosed on histopathology as squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). A second surgery was performed to completely excise the tumor margins, resulting in over 5 years of remission for the neoplasm. However, over the next 6 years the patient developed SCC in 3 new locations on the body, as well as 2 squamous papillomas. The 2 papillomas were surgically excised and did not recur. Due to their size and location, none of the 3 new SCCs were amenable to complete excision. Instead, the 3 SCCs were managed with a series of treatments with intralesional carboplatin in poloxamer 407 and carbon dioxide surgical laser debridements. This treatment regimen has resulted in long-term (52 months, 30 months, and 17 months) resolution for all 3 of the SCCs. The overall survival time for the patient, from the initial diagnosis to the time of this report, is over 2900 days. While being treated for the 3 SCCs, the African grey parrot had no overt signs of complications or adverse side effects.

Research on host response to infectious disease often involves pharmacological induction of immunosuppression, frequently through administration of dexamethasone. Reports on the effect of dexamethasone in birds are largely restricted to poultry and pigeons. This study describes changes in white blood cell (WBC) differentials, hemoparasite counts, splenic histology, and splenic CD3 immunoreactivity in House Finches (Haemorhous mexicanus). Experimental group birds (n=9) were treated with a daily intramuscular injection of 25 µg of dexamethasone for 8 d; a control group (n=9) received daily saline solution. Smears were made with blood collected immediately before the first dose (day 0) and on d 4, 8, and 9, and stained with modified Wright. The WBC differential counts were performed by three blinded observers, parasite counts by two blinded observers, and histology by one blinded observer. Dexamethasone-treated birds experienced relative heterophilia and lymphopenia on d 4 (P=0.008); heterophilia was also present at d 8 (P=0.018). Hemosporidian counts were significantly increased in dexamethasone-treated birds on d 4 and 8 (P=0.048 and P=0.031, respectively). In contrast with control birds, all dexamethasone-treated birds lacked histologically apparent splenic lymphoid follicles (P<0.001). No significant difference was observed in splenic CD3 immunoreactivity between groups. Our results indicate that dexamethasone has an effect on the hematologic profile of House Finches and suggest that it may be a useful method to induce immunosuppression in this species., (© Wildlife Disease Association 2022.)

Envenomation in avian species can result in death, with few cases of successful treatment described. A juvenile, wild-caught, intact female red-tailed hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis ) used in falconry was presented for emergency evaluation after being bitten by a Northern Pacific rattlesnake ( Crotalus oreganus ) approximately 2 hours before presentation. On presentation, the bird was quiet, alert, and responsive, with moderate swelling and discomfort of the digits on the right foot. Complete blood count (CBC) and plasma biochemistry abnormalities included a regenerative left shift, severe lymphopenia, and a moderate hypoproteinemia characterized by moderate hypoalbuminemia. Analgesic and antibiotic medications were administered during hospitalization. In addition, 5 mL of VenomVet was administered intravenously with crystalloid fluids over 60 minutes; no adverse effects were noted secondary to infusion. Improvement in the swelling was observed immediately after antivenom administration and nearly resolved within 12 hours. Complete resolution of digital swelling with no discomfort on palpation of that foot was observed 1 week after initial presentation. Blood collected at the 1 week reexamination was submitted for a CBC and plasma biochemistry panel. The results of the CBC revealed a reduced regenerative left shift, increased heterophil count, and a moderate monocytosis; the lymphopenia was resolved. A mild hypoalbuminemia still persisted. Ten months after presentation, the bird was reported to be doing well with no changes in function of the right foot and subsequently released from captivity.

Case Description: An 8-year-old sexually intact female eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) with a 4-day history of hyporexia and lethargy and a 1-day history of tenesmus was examined., Clinical Findings: Severe leukocytosis characterized by severe heterophilia and moderate monocytosis was present. Marked dilation of the proventriculus and ventriculus and ascites were identified by means of radiography, coelomic ultrasonography, and contrast-enhanced CT, with no clinically relevant motility noted on ultrasonography. Results of coelomic fluid analysis were consistent with pyogranulomatous effusion. Endoscopy of the upper gastrointestinal tract following proventricular and ventricular lavage showed a thick caseous plaque occupying 30% of the caudal proventricular mucosa. Abundant yeast organisms were evident during cytologic examination of a proventricular and ventricular wash sample, and fecal culture yielded Candida glabrata., Treatment and Outcome: The bird was treated with SC fluids, assisted feedings, nystatin, fluconazole, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, enrofloxacin, gastroprotectants, maropitant, and analgesics and slowly improved during hospitalization. A marked decrease in proventricular dilation was evident on serial radiographs obtained over a 12-month period. One year after diagnosis, the bird was presented with a 1-week history of hyporexia and lethargy, and fecal culture grew C glabrata. Antifungal treatment was resumed for 3 months. The bird had no clinical signs of infection 16 months after this recurrence, and subsequent fecal cultures were negative for fungal growth., Clinical Relevance: Findings illustrate the importance of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in diagnosing proventricular and ventricular dilation in birds and emphasize the need for long-term antifungal treatment and monitoring in birds with fungal infections.

A 24-year-old, female cockatiel ( Nymphicus hollandicus ) was diagnosed and treated for chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Diagnosis was based on a persistent lymphocytosis, with counts increasing 10 times from reference intervals with a high percentage of well-differentiated lymphocytes in the bone marrow. Immunohistochemical staining confirmed neoplastic cells of T-cell origin. Specific treatment for the disease was initially withheld but commenced based on an increasing lymphocytosis and decreasing packed cell volume. Therapeutic management of the cockatiel's chronic lymphocytic leukemia was based on human protocols. Treatment with chlorambucil stabilized the disease but did not result in a significant regression of the neoplasm. The bird was euthanatized 15 months after the initial diagnosis and 8 months after treatment commenced. On the postmortem examination, extensive T-cell lymphocytic infiltration was found throughout the internal organs.

1. This study investigated the pharmacokinetics of metronidazole after intravenous (i.v.) and oral administration to healthy and experimentally Trichomonas gallinae -infected pigeons, and determined the in vitro antiprotozoal activity of metronidazole against T. gallinae .2. Twelve pigeons which were experimentally infected to T. gallinae and twelve healthy pigeons received metronidazole at the dose of 25 mg/kg by oral or i.v. administration. Serial blood sampling was used for pharmacokinetic analysis. The metronidazole minimum lethal concentration (MLC) and the concentration killing 50% of the trophozoites (LC 50 ) in the culture media were determined.3. In vitro data showed that the 24 h LC 50 and MLC of metronidazole were 0.31 and 25 µg/ml, respectively. In vivo results showed no statistical differences between pharmacokinetics in infected and non-infected pigeons for both routes of administration. The area under the curve was statistically higher after the i.v. administration in both infected and healthy pigeons. The mean oral bioavailability was similar in the infected (83.8%) and the healthy (81.5%) birds.4. In conclusion, the pharmacokinetics of metronidazole in pigeons was not affected by experimentally-induced trichomoniasis. Despite in vitro susceptibility testing, which showed probable resistance of the isolated T. gallinae to metronidazole, five-day oral treatment of infected pigeons with 25 mg/kg metronidazole twice a day resulted in total eradication of trophozoites recovered in crop lavage of infected birds.

Purpose: To evaluate the effect of prophylactic anti-malarial chloroquine treatment, and its cessation, on electroretinographic (ERG) responses of captive African penguins., Methods: A brief ERG protocol ("QuickRetCheck") was recorded under mesopic conditions with manual restraint and no sedation or pupil dilation. Birds were recorded on two separate occasions, first while being treated with a daily chloroquine dose of 10 mg/kg for 12 days (n = 15, treatment group) and second after 4 months without chloroquine treatment (n = 6, off-treatment group). Three birds were recorded on both occasions. Three other birds from the flock that died were studied histopathologically., Results: Scotopic responses were unmeasurable in either recording and therefore were not analyzed. Mean a- and b-wave amplitudes of the mixed rod-cone responses to standard (3 cd·s/m 2 ) and high (10 cd·s/m 2 ) intensity flashes were higher in the off-treatment group. No difference in implicit times was observed. Sex, age, and number of previous chloroquine treatments did not affect ERG responses. Histopathology revealed Plasmodium spp.in the lungs, liver, and brain, but not in the eyes, of the necropsied birds, and there were no signs of retinitis or retinopathy., Conclusions: Daily chloroquine treatment was associated with attenuated ERG responses in penguins, which improve following cessation of treatment. Further work is warranted to establish a chloroquine dose that is efficacious yet has minimal adverse effects. Our results suggest that ERG responses of captive penguins undergoing ERG for any indication (such as prior to cataract surgery), must be evaluated in light of the birds' anti-malaria treatment status., (© 2021 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

An approximately 25-year-old, female, yellow-naped Amazon parrot ( Amazona auropalliata ) was evaluated for a chronic, raised, ulcerative mass on the lateral aspect of the left thigh. Histopathology of an excisional biopsy revealed severe, chronic, multifocal-to-coalescing, ulcerated dermal and subcutaneous granulomas. No infectious organisms were observed on Ziehl-Neelsen or Gomori methenamine silver stains. The parrot was treated with oral sulfamethoxazoletrimethoprim and meloxicam. When reexamined 2 weeks later, the biopsy site had healed. Surgical biopsies were resubmitted 14 months after the original presentation due to recurrence of similar ulcerative lesions on the right leg. Histopathology revealed a similar inflammatory pattern, and hematoxylin-eosin, Ziehl-Neelsen, and silver stains on the biopsy samples were all negative. A Fite-Faraco stain revealed rare acid-fast bacilli throughout the lesion. Tissue polymerase chain reaction test was negative for Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium genavense . Mycobacterial culture and subsequent genotyping revealed Mycobacterium kansasii . Mycobacterium kansasii is a significant cause of mycobacteriosis in humans and, therefore, should be considered a potential zoonotic organism. This report describes an unusual primary cutaneous presentation of avian mycobacteriosis.

Carotenoid plumage coloration is an important sexually selected trait in many bird species. However, the mechanisms ensuring the honesty of signals based on carotenoid pigments remain unclear. It has recently been suggested that intestinal integrity, which is affected by gut parasites and microbiota and influences nutrient absorption and acquisition, mediates the relationship between carotenoid ornamentation and individual quality. Here, we test whether carotenoid plumage coloration in greenfinches (Chloris chloris) is affected by the treatment of an antibiotic or an antiparasitic drug. We captured wild greenfinches (N = 71) and administered anticoccidial medication toltrazuril (TOLTRA) to one group, antibiotic metronidazole (METRO) to the second group to target trichomonosis, and the third group received no medication. In the METRO group, feathers grown during the experiment had significantly higher chroma of yellow parts, but there was no effect of TOLTRA on feather chroma. The results suggest that METRO increased the efficiency of carotenoid modification or deposition to the feathers rather than nutrient acquisition and/or freed energy resources that could be invested in coloration. Alternatively, though not measured, METRO might have affected microbial community and host physiology as microbial metabolites can modulate mitochondrial and immune function.

Previously, a fungus was isolated from a diseased pigeon group clinically suspected of being infected with Candida. The fungus was subsequently identified as Candida glabrata using morphology, physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology testing methods. In the present study, to determine the controlling effects of Chinese herbal medicine for C. glabrata, the bacteriostatic effects of the ethanol extracts Acorus gramineus, Sophora flavescens, Polygonum hydropiper, Cassia obtusifolia, Pulsatilla chinensis, Dandelion, and Cortex phellodendri on C. glabrata in vitro were analyzed. The results showed that the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC 80 ) of Cortex phellodendri was 0.25 μg/μL. Meanwhile, that of S. flavescens was 32 μg/μL; C. obtusifolia was 56 μg/μL; A. gramineus and Polygonum hydropiper was 64 μg/μL; and P. chinensis was 112 μg/μL. However, MIC 80 for Dandelion was undetectable. In addition, improved drug sensitivity tests revealed that colonies had grown after 24 h in the blank group, as well as the Polygonum hydropiper, P. chinensis, Dandelion, and ethanol groups. The colonies first appeared at the 48-hour point in the other drug-sensitive medium of Chinese herbal medicine. However, no colony growth was found in Cortex phellodendri medium, and the formation of the maximum colony diameter in that group was later than the blank group (e.g., 96 h in the blank group and 120 h in the Chinese herbal medicine group). It was observed that only 17 colony-forming units had grown in 125 μg/μL of the S. flavescens medium, which was significantly different from other groups. Also, the final colony diameter was significantly smaller than that of the other experimental groups. Therefore, it was determined that the A. gramineus, S. flavescens, Polygonum hydropiper, Cassia obtusifolia, P. chinensis, and Cortex phellodendri had certain inhibitory effects on the growth of the C. glabrata. Among those, it was observed that the Cortex phellodendri had the strongest inhibitory effects, followed by the S. flavescens. In the future, these Chinese herbal medicines are expected to be used to treat the fungal infections related to C. glabrata in poultry to improve production performance., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Sarcocystosis was diagnosed in a captive flock of thick-billed parrots ( Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha ) at the Wildlife Conservation Society's Queens Zoo. Since the index case in 2005, 45% of mortalities in birds over 30 days of age were due to sarcocystosis. Sarcocystis falcatula was repeatedly identified as the causative agent. The disease predominantly affected younger adult parrots. Administration of antiparasitic medications prior to development of respiratory signs prolonged life in infected birds, but disease was fatal until utilization of a three-drug combination (pyrimethamine, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and ponazuril). This protocol may require in excess of 6 mo of therapy to achieve clinical resolution of active disease. Plasma creatine kinase activity was found to be the most useful test in diagnosing infection and monitoring response to therapy. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for apicomplexan organisms on antemortem whole blood, blood smears, or dried blood spots helped confirm suspected cases, but due to the poor sensitivity was sometimes misleading when assessing response to therapy or resolution of clinical disease. Preventive measures, focusing on exclusion and removal of Virginia opossums ( Didelphis virginiana ) from zoo grounds failed to curtail the occurrence of sarcocystosis in the flock. Other preventative steps, such as modification of feeding stations to exclude potential arthropod paratenic hosts and prophylaxis trials with diclazuril, appeared to successfully mitigate new infections. Given the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges, prevention of exposure to S. falcatula is essential to ex-situ conservation efforts for thick-billed parrots.

Six adult Waldrapp ibis ( Geronticus eremita ) were presented with heavy metal toxicosis secondary to paint chip ingestion after being placed in an indoor confinement enclosure because of a regional highly pathogenic avian influenza epornitic and government restrictions. Four of the ibis developed clinical disease signs between 45 and 64 days of confinement, including weakness, lethargy, inability to fly, low body condition, and bilateral wing droop while 2 birds appeared to remain normal during that period. Common clinicopathological findings included elevated plasma aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, glutamate dehydrogenase, and bile acids values. Erythrocyte morphological changes included prominent hypochromasia, decreased size of polychromatophils with occasional cytoplasmic stippling, abnormal shapes, and D cells. Whole-body radiographic imaging revealed particulate radio-opaque material in the ventriculus of all affected birds. One bird died before chelation therapy could be instituted and heavy metal testing of the liver revealed increased concentrations of lead and zinc. Lead toxicosis was diagnosed in the 5 remaining birds by plasma lead analysis. These 5 birds were hospitalized for an average of 40 days and treated with sodium calcium edetate and fluid therapy, which resulted in resolution of the toxicosis. Plasma biochemistry, complete blood counts, and blood lead values were performed repeatedly on all 5 birds and were used to guide therapy and monitor treatment response. This case series emphasizes the importance of early contingency planning and reviews the treatment of lead toxicosis in birds with a focus on long-term clinical monitoring and hematology.

The availability of GnRH agonist implants offers the possibility of a reversible, temporary downregulation of endocrine and germinative testicular function in male dogs and hobs. This review provides an overview of the registered indication, the induction of temporary infertility in healthy, intact, sexually mature male dogs (4.7 and 9.4 mg deslorelin) and hobs (9.4 mg deslorelin) as well as various off-label indications. Off-label use requires strict indications, informed consent from the owner and a lack of licensed medication (safe and optimum effect). Off-label indications in the male dog include sexual-hormone dependant (disturbing) behavior, benign prostatic hyperplasia, small adenomas of the hepatoid glands and alopecia X. Successful use of deslorelin implants for estrus suppression in jils, but also for the treatment of hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets in general have been described. Similarly, hormonal castration can be induced in tomcats and queens. The variable time to onset of effect and its duration (extremely variable in some animals) represent a challenge for breeders. No (sufficient) contraceptive activity was identified in male rabbits and male guinea pigs; however, treatment did successfully suppress the estrus cycle in female individuals of these species, as well as reproductive activity in male and female rats. Regarding the use in birds and reptiles, significant species-specific differences exist with regard to efficacy, time until onset of effect and duration of downregulation. In birds, the implant is efficient to fully suppress egg laying in chicken, Japanese quail and psittacids. In doves, egg laying is only significantly reduced. Successful treatment of reproduction-associated (unwanted) behaviour patterns (feather picking, aggression) has also been described. In some male birds, namely zebrafinch and Japanese quail, the deslorelin implant is suitable to reduce testosterone levels. Successful treatment of hormone-dependent tumours (Sertoli-cell tumorus) in budgerigars has been described as well as the modulation of specific behavior in turkeys and an efficacy in facilitating their keeping (i. e. reduction of aggression). In reptiles, only the successful use of deslorelin in iguana has been demonstrated to date., Competing Interests: SGP hat Forschungsmittel zum Einsatz von Suprelorin®-Implantaten an verschiedenen Spezies/Geschlechtern von Virbac erhalten und Vorträge zur Thematik gehalten. Dennoch besteht kein persönlicher Interessenkonflikt, da nie Literaturarbeiten oder Studienergebnisse bzw. die Darstellung dieser beeinflusst wurden. Auch dieser Artikel ist frei und ohne Beeinflussung entstanden. SS hat keinen Interessenkonflikt., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

One hundred and twenty one-day-old chukar partridges were randomly divided into eight groups which received diets with different supplementations. There were four unchallenged groups. One group received salinomycin (50 ppm), two groups received cinnamaldehyde (CINN) (100 and 200 mg/kg of diet), and another one received only the basal diet from the 1st to the 31st day. There were also four corresponding groups orally challenged by 3 × 10 5 Eimeria kofoidi sporulated oocysts at the 21st day. Three samplings were done at the 24th, 26th, and 31st days of rearing for pathological and biochemical assessments. Fecal samples were daily taken to check the pattern of oocyst shedding from the 26th to 31st day. The body weight of birds was measured at 21st and 31st days. Along with the in vivo experiment, an in vitro sporulation inhibition test was carried out. The in vitro results showed that CINN decreased sporulation rate at 1 and 0.5 mg/ml. In vivo, it was found that CINN did not prevent the oocyst shedding. Furthermore, the histopathological findings revealed that CINN and salinomycin had no effect on infection establishment. However, our findings showed that CINN (200 mg/kg of diet) could enhance the body weight and improve antioxidant status. Although our results did not support the in vivo anticoccidial activity of CINN, it had a promising potential to improve antioxidant status and body weight in the chukar partridge., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Infection with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis can be difficult to diagnose and treat successfully. Twenty-four cases from the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) London Zoo and ZSL Whipsnade Zoo were identified between 2001 and 2019. Husbandry, medical, and postmortem records for six primates, 10 artiodactyls, and eight birds were reviewed to identify common clinical signs and gross lesions. Most cases occurred during the winter; however, an outbreak in four primates occurred during the summer following a period of stress associated with increased ambient noise and activity. Common clinical signs included lethargy (6/6 primates, 4/10 artiodactyls, 4/8 birds) or death without premonitory signs (3/10 artiodactyls, 4/8 birds). Once clinical signs were observed, disease progressed quickly. Poor condition was common in mammals (6/6 primates, 9/10 artiodactyls), but often went undetected until postmortem examination. Neurological signs occurred in three of six primates. Diarrhea and anorexia were uncommon in all animals. Hepatitis was observed in all groups (4/6 primates, 2/10 artiodactyls, 4/8 birds), mesenteric lymphadenomegaly was common in mammals (4/6 primates, 8/10 artiodactyls), and gastroenteritis was common in artiodactyls (7/10). Erythematous, punctate rashes, which have only been reported with yersiniosis in humans, were present in three of six primates. Bacterial cultures from the liver in primates and birds or enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes in artiodactyls were often diagnostic. All isolates were susceptible to marbofloxacin, oxytetracycline, streptomycin, ceftazidime, amoxicillin clavulanic acid, trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole, azithromycin, and doxycycline, and resistant to clindamycin. Histopathology and Perl's Prussian blue stains were performed on available liver samples ( n = 18). Intracellular hemosiderin was present in 17 of 18 cases. Additional research is needed to determine if there is a relationship between hemosiderosis and yersiniosis.

A 20-year-old female mute swan ( Cygnus olor ) originally in a flock of free-living swans on a Long Island, New York, lake, was presented for facial swelling and decreased appetite. An adult male ring-billed gull ( Larus delawarensis ) was also presented to the same wildlife rescue center for bilateral lameness of 1-week duration. Once referred for veterinary evaluation and care, both species were diagnosed with septic arthritis and osteomyelitis caused by Chryseobacterium indologenes and treated with orbifloxacin until complete recovery. Chryseobacterium indologenes is infrequently diagnosed as an opportunistic pathogen in human medicine, and less so in veterinary medicine. In human patients, this bacterium is the cause of various infections, including meningitis, pneumonia, and implant failure. However, in veterinary medicine its pathogenicity has only been reported in fish, and sporadically mentioned as a culture result in tree frogs and turtles, where it was generally considered insignificant. In this report a clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of osteomyelitis and septic arthritis caused by C indologenes is described in 1 anseriforme and in 1 charadriiforme species.

Outstanding increase of oral absorption, bioavailability, and antiviral efficacy of phosphorylated nucleosides and basic antiviral influence of abacavir is the central idea for the development of new series of phosphorylated abacavir (ABC) derivatives. The designed compounds were primarily screened for antiviral nature against HN protein of NDV and VP7 protein of BTV using the molecular environment approach. Out of all the designed compounds, the compounds which are having higher binding energies against these two viral strains were prompted for the synthesis of the target compounds (5A-K). Among the synthesized title compounds (5A-K), the compounds which have exhibited higher dock scores akin to the rest of the compounds were then selected and screened for the antiviral activity against NDV and BTV infected embryonated eggs and BHK 21 cell lines through the in ovo and in vitro approaches. The results revealed that all the designed compounds have formed higher binding energies against both the targets. Among all, the compounds which are selected based on their dock scores such as 5A, 5F, 5G, 5H, 5I, and 5K against NDV and 5J, 5E, 5I, 5C, 5A, and 5K against BTV have shown significant antiviral activity against HN protein of NDV, VP7 protein of Bluetongue virus in both NDV- and BTV-treated embryonated eggs and BHK 21 cell lines. Hence, it is concluded that, the best lead compounds will stand as the potential antiviral agents and prompted them as virtuous therapeutics against NDV and BTV in future.

Voriconazole is one of the main azoles used to treat invasive aspergillosis in falconry raptors and birds. Despite the fact that there are studies for oral and intravenous use of voriconazole in birds, there are none for its effect after intramuscular use. Empirical use of intramuscular voriconazole in falcons, indicated quicker therapy response than the oral one. Aim of this study is to evaluate the in vivo pharmacokinetic disposition of injectable voriconazole after a single intramuscular injection in large falcons (i.e., Gyrfalcons, Saker falcons, Peregrine falcons). No clinical side effects were observed in the falcons. Absorption of voriconazole was rapid (0.5-2 hours) and reached a plasma level (>1 μg/ml) which is above the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) for all known Aspergillus strains. This level was maintained for 16 to 20 hours, thus indicating that a single injection of 12.5 mg/kg is not enough if T > MIC is taken into consideration. On a newer aspect, according to the AUC24 unbound: MIC parameter would be indicated that this dose would be rather sufficient for most Aspergillus strains., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The International Society for Human and Animal Mycology.)

Antimicrobial use in livestock production is a driver for the development and proliferation of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Wildlife interactions with livestock, acquiring associated AMR bacteria and genes, and wildlife's subsequent dispersal across the landscape are hypothesized to play an important role in the ecology of AMR. Here, we examined priority AMR phenotypes and genotypes of Escherichia coli isolated from the gastrointestinal tracts of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) found on concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). European starlings may be present in high numbers on CAFOs (>100,000 birds), interact with urban environments, and can migrate distances exceeding 1,500 km in North America. In this study, 1,477 European starlings from 31 feedlots in five U.S. states were sampled for E. coli resistant to third generation cephalosporins (3G-C) and fluoroquinolones. The prevalence of 3G-C and fluoroquinolone-resistant E. coli was 4% and 10%, respectively. Multidrug resistance in the E. coli isolates collected (n = 236) was common, with the majority of isolates displaying resistance to six or more classes of antibiotics. Genetic analyses of a subset of these isolates identified 94 genes putatively contributing to AMR, including seven class A and C β-lactamases as well as mutations in gyrA and parC recognized to confer resistance to quinolones. Phylogenetic and subtyping assessments showed that highly similar isolates (≥99.4% shared core genome, ≥99.6% shared coding sequence) with priority AMR were found in birds on feedlots separated by distances exceeding 150 km, suggesting that European starlings could be involved in the interstate dissemination of priority AMR bacteria.

Aspergillosis is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in captive penguins. Itraconazole, an antifungal drug, is commonly used to treat aspergillosis infections in avian species; however, commercially available human formulations are costly, and studies have shown the effectiveness of compounded formulations to be unreliable. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently approved a veterinary formulation of itraconazole, Itrafungol, for use in cats. This study provides preliminary results from limited sampling evaluating whether this veterinary formulation is suitable for future studies in the African penguin ( Spheniscus demersus ). A 20 mg/kg PO itraconazole dose was administered to 9 African penguins. Blood samples were taken over the course of 24 hours; each sample was collected from a different bird to minimize stress to the animals. Plasma was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography for concentrations of itraconazole. The drug was absorbed in all penguins, and plasma concentrations in 5 of 9 penguins (56%) were found to be greater than the established therapeutic dose of 1.0 µg/ mL. To our knowledge, this is the first study that has investigated a 20 mg/kg dose of itraconazole in a penguin species. The small sample size limits the conclusions that can be drawn from this preliminary study. Nonetheless, we demonstrate encouraging evidence that the FDA-approved formulation of oral itraconazole solution should be considered for future study as a cost-effective treatment for aspergillosis in African penguins and other avian species.

Atorvastatin is a synthetic statin administered in its active form and used for the treatment of dyslipidemias. In the current study, the effects of atorvastatin were evaluated on plasma lipid profiles and the potential for adverse effects after once daily PO dosing of atorvastatin for 30 days in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots ( Amazona ventralis ). Sixteen adult parrots (10 female, 6 male) with hypercholesterolemia were used for this study. Birds were assigned to 2 groups (treatment and control) of 8 parrots each (3 male, 5 female) after balancing for age, sex, originating institution, and baseline plasma cholesterol values. Compounded atorvastatin oral suspension (10 mg/kg) was administered PO once daily via gavage into the crop. Equivalent volumes of placebo suspension were administered to the control group. Plasma biochemistry and plasma lipid profile analysis (total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [HDL-C], low-density lipoprotein cholesterol [LDL-C], and triglycerides [TGs]) were analyzed on days 0, 14, and 30. Plasma samples and HDL-C fractions were evaluated for cholesterol and TG concentrations via enzymatic assays. Subtraction of HDL-C values from total cholesterol yielded the non-HDL-C concentration for each bird. Birds were routinely assessed for appetite, activity, and urofeces. Plasma atorvastatin concentrations were obtained from 7 of 8 birds in the treatment group from banked samples. Those samples were obtained on days 14 and 30, with drug administration 6 to 8 hours before collection. No significant differences were observed in total cholesterol, HDL-C, non-HDL-C, or TG between treatment and control groups at days 0, 14, and 30. Plasma atorvastatin concentrations were variable on day 14 (0.54-5.41 ng/ mL for 6 of 7 samples, with 1 outlier of 307 ng/mL) and on day 30 (0.79-6.74 ng/mL). No adverse effects were noted in any of the birds during the study period. When dosed PO at 10 mg/kg once daily, atorvastatin did not result in significant changes to plasma lipid profiles (eg, lowering of plasma total or non-HDL-C concentrations) at any time point during this study. Future studies to investigate pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of atorvastatin in parrots may require increased doses and/or frequency of administration.

A non- albicans Candida species was identified in 6 birds exhibiting clinical signs associated with gastrointestinal disease. The clinical disease signs noted in these 6 birds included diarrhea, regurgitation, and melena, and were considered concurrent or identified secondary to other comorbidities. Candida glabrata was identified in a yellow-naped Amazon parrot ( Amazona auropalliata ), a ring-necked dove ( Streptopelia capicola ), a blue-and-gold macaw ( Ara ararauna ), and 2 cockatiels ( Nymphicus hollandicus ). Candida krusei was identified in a white-crowned parrot ( Pionus senilis ). Fungal culture and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry identification was correlated with results of fecal and/or crop Gram's stains, and DNA sequencing was used in one case. Three cases resolved after treatment, 2 birds died, and 1 was lost to follow-up. Non- albicans Candida infections are an emerging issue in human health care and are known to have an increased resistance to antifungal drugs. Similar to Candida albicans, these non- albicans Candida species are often identified in patients that have a history of prior antibiotic exposure. Recent data in human medicine describe a shift in species distribution away from C albicans dominance and toward other species, including C glabrata and C krusei . Both species are considered normal flora within the human and bird mycobiota and may emerge to cause disease, especially when the normal gastrointestinal environment has been disrupted.

The study compares the effect of one-time administration of nonsteroidal and/or steroidal anti-inflammatory combinations by topical or intramuscular (IM) routes to pigeons with monosodium urate (MSU)-induced arthritis. Forty-five adult domestic pigeons were assigned into nine equal groups: NC, negative control; PC, positive control with arthritis; sham, sham control; T1, meloxicam + hydrocortisone; T2, dexamethasone + piroxicam; T3, meloxicam + dexamethasone; T4, hydrocortisone + piroxicam; T5, dexamethasone + hydrocortisone; T6, meloxicam + piroxicam. Arthritis was also induced in T1 to T6 birds. Meloxicam and dexamethasone were administered by IM injection and the other drugs topically right after the induction of arthritis. Different drug combinations significantly decreased one-leg standing time. Induction of arthritis significantly increased TNF-α and IL-6 levels in synovial fluid and serum corticosterone and epinephrine in the PC group. Administration of drugs to birds of Groups T1 and T5 did not significantly change corticosterone concentration, while all different drug combinations decreased epinephrine level. Drug combinations that demonstrated better analgesic effect more strongly reduced serum epinephrine concentration. Meloxicam + hydrocortisone was the most effective combination in reducing inflammatory cytokines. In conclusion, one-time combination therapy with anti-inflammatory agents was effective in the acute management of inflammatory pain due to MSU-induced arthritis in pigeons, even by the topical route.

An African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) presented with a large peri-cloacal mass. The mass was diagnosed as a pyogranuloma histologically, with multifocal to coalescing inflammatory responses in the subcutis and keratinized simple stratified squamous epithelium overlying the surface. The patient was prescribed 125 mg/kg oral clavulanic acid/amoxycillin twice a day and 20 mg/kg oral terbinafine once a day for 14 days, but there was no change in the size of the mass 4 days after therapy, so a decision was made to administer 1 mg/kg of intralesional methylprednisolone. Fourteen days later, the mass resolved with no further recurrence. This case demonstrated that intralesional methylprednisolone used with antibiotic and antifungals was effective in resolving a peri-cloacal pyogranuloma and without any side effects.

This study investigated the effects of an antimicrobial peptide (AMP), cLF36, on growth performance and the histophysiological changes of the intestine in E. coli-challenged broiler chickens. A total number of 360 day old male chicks were randomly assigned to 4 groups of 6 replicates as follows: T1) negative control diet based on corn-soybean meal without E. coli challenge and additives; T2) positive control diet based on corn-soybean meal and challenged with E. coli without any additives; T3) positive control diet challenged with E. coli and supplemented with 20 mg AMP (cLF36)/kg diet; T4) positive control diet challenged with E. coli and supplemented with 45 mg antibiotic (bacitracin methylene disalicylate)/kg diet. Results showed that T3 improved growth performance and the jejunal morphology of E. coli-challenged chickens similar to those of T4. While antibiotic non-selectively decreased the population of ileal bacteria, AMP increased the population of Lactobacillus spp. and decreased harmful bacteria in the ileum of E. coli-challenged chickens. Supplementing E. coli-challenged chickens with AMP improved the gene expression of immune cells and upregulated the expression of tight junction proteins compared to other challenged groups. In conclusion, although cLF36 beneficially affected growth performance and the intestinal morphology of E. coli-challenged chickens similar to those of the antibiotic group, this AMP drastically improved the intestinal microbiome, immune cells, and junctional proteins compared to other E. coli-challenged birds, and can be nominated as an alternative for growth promoter antibiotics.

Babesia species are tickborne hemoprotozoans. Although experiments have shown that primaquine is highly effective in the treatment of Babesia species infections in mammals, this drug has not been widely used for the treatment of avian babesiosis. Consequently, the treatment of this disease for avian patients has traditionally relied on an empirically established imidocarb treatment. In this study, the authors examined the efficacy of primaquine as a treatment alternative for avian babesiosis ( Babesia peircei and Babesia ugwidiensis ) in seabirds. Retrospective analysis was performed on the medical records and blood smears of 446 B peircei -positive African penguins ( Spheniscus demersus ) and 41 B ugwidiensis -positive Cape cormorants ( Phalacrocorax capensis ) admitted for rehabilitation at the Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB, Cape Town, South Africa). Treatment with primaquine (1 mg/kg PO q24h for 10 days) was effective in rapidly and markedly decreasing the proportion of Babesia -positive blood smears in African penguins and Cape cormorants. No regurgitation, loss of appetite, or any other signs after administration of primaquine were observed during the study period. The use of primaquine can be a particularly advantageous treatment alternative for avian babesiosis in circumstances in which it is not possible to determine confidently whether the intraerythrocytic inclusions seen in blood smears correspond to Babesia or Plasmodium or in cases in which there is a coinfection by Babesia and Plasmodium .

The in vitro nematicidal effect of Chenopodium ambrosioides and Castela tortuosa n-hexane extracts (E-Cham and E-Cato, respectively) on Haemonchus contortus infective larvae (L3) and the anthelmintic effect of these extracts against the pre-adult stage of the parasite in gerbils were evaluated using both individual and combined extracts. The in vitro confrontation between larvae and extracts was performed in 24-well micro-titration plates. The results were considered 24 and 72 h post confrontation. The in vivo nematicidal effect was examined using gerbils as a study model. The extracts from the two assessed plants were obtained through maceration using n-hexane as an organic agent. Gerbils artificially infected with H. contortus L3 were treated intraperitoneally with the corresponding extract either individually or in combination. The results showed that the highest individual lethal in vitro effect (96.3%) was obtained with the E-Cham extract at 72 h post confrontation at 40 mg/ml, followed by E-Cato (78.9%) at 20 mg/ml after 72 h. The highest combined effect (98.7%) was obtained after 72 h at 40 mg/ml. The in vivo assay showed that the individual administration of the E-Cato and E-Cham extracts reduced the parasitic burden in gerbils by 27.1% and 45.8%, respectively. Furthermore, the anthelmintic efficacy increased to 57.3% when both extracts were administered in combination. The results of the present study show an important combined nematicidal effect of the two plant extracts assessed against L3 in gerbils.

Infections with immunosuppressive pigeon circovirus (PiCV) pose the most severe health problem to the global pigeon breeding. The vaccination with immunogenic PiCV recombinant capsid protein (PiCV rCP) is a potential tool for disease control. Because of the high prevalence of PiCV asymptomatic infections, the subclinically infected pigeons will be vaccinated in practice. The aim of this study was to answer a question if vaccination of asymptomatic, infected with PiCV pigeons induces a similar immune response to PiCV rCP as in uninfected birds. One hundred and twenty 6-week-old carrier pigeons were divided into 4 groups (2 groups of naturally infected and uninfected with PiCV individuals). Birds from groups V and V1 were vaccinated twice with PiCV rCP mixed with an adjuvant, whereas pigeons from groups C and C1 were immunized with an adjuvant only. The expression of genes encoding IFN-γ, CD4, and CD8 T lymphocyte receptors; the number of anti-PiCV rCP IgY-secreting B cells (SBC) and anti-PiCV rCP IgY were evaluated 2, 21, 39 and 46 days post vaccination (dpv). Study results showed that the expression of CD8 and IFN-γ genes was higher in both groups of infected pigeons than in the uninfected birds, irrespective of vaccination. In the uninfected birds, the expression of these genes was insignificantly higher in the vaccinated pigeons. The anti-PiCV rCP IgY-SBC were detected on 2 and 23 dpv and seroconversion was noted on 23 and 39 dpv in V and V1 groups, respectively. In the light of the results obtained, it could be concluded that pigeon circovirus recombinant capsid protein elicits the immune response in both naturally infected and uninfected pigeons, but its rate varies depending on PiCV infectious status. The infection with PiCV masks the potential cellular immune response to the vaccination with PiCV rCP and leads to the suppression of humoral immunity., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

A group of zoo-housed little penguins ( Eudyptula minor ) was diagnosed with mycobacteriosis. While undergoing multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) imaging for an unrelated research project, pulmonary lesions were detected in multiple individuals. In general, birds appeared healthy and free of outward signs of disease. After the loss of three individuals, polyclonal mycobacterial disease due to Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex was confirmed. Surviving birds were treated with rifampin (45 mg/kg), ethambutol (30 mg/kg), clarithromycin (10 mg/kg), and enrofloxacin (30 mg/kg) compounded into a single capsule administered once a day in food. After 3 mo of therapy, MDCT imaging documented a decrease in nodule size and number in all remaining birds, with further improvement documented after 13 mo of treatment. MDCT imaging was invaluable for diagnosing disease, documenting disease progression over time, and assessing response to therapy. Early initiation of therapy before the development of outward signs of disease led to resolution of mycobacterial pulmonary lesions in multiple penguins. Mycobacterial disease in this group of little penguins, as well as previously published reports, suggests that the species is at increased risk for developing mycobacteriosis., (2019 Copyright 2019 by American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.)

A female Swainson's toucan ( Ramphastos ambiguus swainsonii ) was presented for examination with a 2-year history of mucoid nasal discharge and abnormal growth of the rhamphotheca. Nasal cytologic examination and culture results were consistent with mixed aerobic and anaerobic bacterial rhinitis. Radiographic and computed tomographic imaging demonstrated a deviated septum of the nasal diverticulum and multiple soft tissue densities in the caudal aspects of the maxillary and mandibular infraorbital diverticula of the infraorbital sinus. Results of rhinoscopy and biopsy confirmed bacterial rhinitis. Treatment included multiple nasal lavages with saline, gentamicin, and amphotericin B and systemic ciprofloxacin and tobramycin nebulizations for several weeks. Repeat radiographic imaging 4 years later showed resolution of most soft tissue opacities previously observed within the maxillary and mandibular diverticula but persistence of 3 areas of soft tissue, dense material within the maxillary sinus diverticulum. A sinus trephination procedure was performed through the maxillary bone for sinoscopy and sample collection and topical treatment. Results of aerobic bacterial cultures from the granulomas were negative. Biopsy results were consistent with keratin granulomas without bacterial or fungal infection. Two and a half years after trephination, the surgical site was fully healed with no recurrence of the nasal discharge. This is the first report, to our knowledge, of sinus trephination in a toucan and describes the advanced diagnostic and medical and surgical treatment of chronic rhinitis in this case., (© 2019 by the Association of Avian Veterinarians.)

Eugenol was investigated for the treatment of Haemoproteus columbae ( H. columbae ) infected squabs (young domestic pigeons, Columba domestica ). Thirty naturally-infected squabs were divided into three groups of 10 each. One group was treated with Eugenol, while the positive and negative control groups were administered buparvaquone (Butalex®) and distilled water, respectively. The number of infected red blood cells (RBCs) was calculated in all groups before and after treatment at 4-day intervals for 16 days. The results showed a significant therapeutic effect of Eugenol, with a progressive decrease in the number of infected RBCs from 89.20 ± 2.11 before treatment to 0.90 ± 0.31 at the end of treatment ( P ≤0.05). Butalex® was able to suppress the number of infected RBCs from 93.70 ± 1.72 before treatment to 0.90 ± 0.35 at the end of the experiment ( P ≤0.05). Eugenol showed therapeutic effects against H. columbae and may be regarded as a candidate for further studies to develop new drugs against blood parasites, in both animals and humans., (© 2019 The Author(s).)

Cell structures morphologically consistent with Blastocystis were aspirated from a subcutaneous facial swelling in a 13-mo-old pet duck. On PCR analysis and sequencing, the organism was confirmed as Blastocystis sp. subtype 7. Blastocystis is a single-celled protist that is found in the intestinal tract of many species, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and insects. A complete understanding of the lifecycle and pathogenesis of the parasite remains elusive. Blastocystis has been implicated in human and animal disease; however, its role is controversial given that it is commonly found among healthy gut microbiota. Infection with Blastocystis outside the intestinal tract has been reported only rarely in humans. Our case of subcutaneous Blastocystis infection in a duck is a novel presentation of a ubiquitous, generally asymptomatic, parasite or commensal of the intestinal tract.

Background: Ectoparasitism of ornamental birds, including captive species kept in zoos, represents a serious health problem. Up to 13 different species of lice have been reported to affect peacocks worldwide and heavy infestation may cause anaemia. Because of this, alternatives to the prevailing treatments have been sought including use of isoxazolines. This class of drugs has been used successfully in poultry without adverse effects on health or production., Objective: To evaluate the effect of afoxolaner on the peacock louse (Goniodes pavonis)., Animals: Twenty-three peacocks (Pavo cristatus) with naturally occurring infestation with G. pavonis., Methods and Materials: The peacocks were divided in two groups; one was treated once orally with 2.5 mg/kg afoxolaner and the other group received no treatment. Samples were collected using the acetate tape technique, for identification of lice by microscopy. Concomitantly, blood samples were taken to evaluate the haematocrit before and after the intervention., Results: Treatment with afoxolaner significantly decreased the number of peacocks positive for lice (P = 0.02) compared to the control group, in which the number of positive birds did not decrease. The haematocrit improved in the afoxolaner-treated group from a baseline of 46.4%-54.7% at 35 days post-treatment, whereas it decreased in untreated birds (44.6%-40.7%). No adverse effects attributed to afoxolaner treatment were observed., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Oral administration of afoxolaner is an effective treatment for G. pavonis infestation of peacocks., (© 2018 ESVD and ACVD.)

Aim: To assess the efficacy of toltrazuril against the Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli)., Methods: Droppings were collected from three brown kiwi, aged <6 months old, at a captive rearing facility in the North Island of New Zealand, between 22 February and 20 April 2017, on 14 sampling dates. Only droppings (n=30) that were excreted between 03:00 and 07:00, as determined using video surveillance, were included for analysis, reflecting the peak time for shedding of coccidial oocysts for brown kiwi. Oocysts were quantified in each sample and Eimeria species identified on the basis of oocyst morphology. All samples were collected between 2 and 10 days after the birds had been treated with 25 mg/kg toltrazuril., Results: Eimeria spp. oocysts were identified in 28/30 individual samples and on 14/14 sampling dates. Oocyst counts varied from 0 to 328,080 oocysts per gram (opg), and at least one oocyst count >10,000 opg was measured on 12/14 sampling dates. Three species of Eimeria were observed, with Eimeria apteryxii and E. kiwii most commonly encountered, whereas only one sample contained E. paraurii., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: In the three birds monitored at this research site, there was a high abundance of E. apteryxii and E. kiwii oocysts in droppings despite recent administration of toltrazuril. These results suggest that the populations of Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi at this location appear to possess an ability to survive exposure to toltrazuril. Toltrazuril is widely used at captive rearing facilities to limit the effects of coccidiosis in juvenile kiwi. If a lack of efficacy is confirmed, it will be necessary to investigate alternative treatment regimens alongside broader environmental management strategies.

An approximately 42-year-old, wild-caught, red-crowned Amazon parrot ( Amazona viridigenalis ) was evaluated for a subcutaneous mass to the right of the keel. Cytologic examination of a fine needle aspirate of the mass were suggestive of granulomatous inflammation. The mass was surgically excised, and the parrot was treated with oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Histologically, the mass was diagnosed as a teratoma with stratified squamous epithelial and neuroectodermal components. Tumor cells extended to surgical margins. Two years later, the neoplasm recurred, with regrowth of only the neuroectodermal component. The neoplasm was again removed surgically, but it recurred again 14 months later, necessitating a third surgery. Histopathologic examination confirmed recurrence of the original neoplasm in both instances, with incomplete margins on both excisions., (© 2019 by the Association of Avian Veterinarians.)

This study assessed the effect of in ovo threonine supplementation on the response of broiler chicks challenged with Salmonella Enteritidis, considering bacterial counts in cecal contents, intestinal morphology, body weight, and weight gain. Fertilized eggs were inoculated in the amniotic fluid with saline (NT) or 3.5% threonine (T) solution at day 17.5 of incubation. At hatch, chicks were individually weighed and cloacal swabs were screened for Salmonella . At 2 days of age, half of the birds from each in ovo treatment were given either 0.5 mL of nutrient broth (sham-inoculated) or nalidixic acid-resistant Salmonella Enteritidis (SE Nal R ) in nutrient broth (8.3 × 10 7 colony forming units (CFU) SE Nal R /mL). The birds were distributed using a completely randomized design with four treatments after the Salmonella challenge: no in ovo Thr supplementation and sham-inoculated in the posthatch challenge (NT-SHAM), in ovo Thr supplementation and sham-inoculated (T-SHAM), no in ovo Thr supplementation and SE Nal R -challenged (NT-SE), and in ovo Thr supplementation and SE Nal R -challenged (T-SE). In ovo threonine supplementation reduced Salmonella Enteritidis colonization 168-hour postinoculation and reduced the negative effects associated with Salmonella infection on intestinal morphology and performance, with results similar to those of the sham-inoculated birds. In ovo Thr supplementation increased the expression of MUC2 at hatch and the expression of MUC2 and IgA at 2 days of age and 168-hour postinoculation. Our results suggest that providing in ovo threonine promotes intestinal health in broilers challenged with Salmonella Enteritidis in the first days of life.

Enterococci are Gram-positive facultative anaerobic bacteria commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract of the mammals and birds. These cocci are isolated from urinary tract infections, bacteremia, endocarditis, and burn wounds in humans. The evolution of antibiotic-resistant enterococci raised a problem due to the possibility of the transmission of these organisms between poultry and human. Regarding this, the present study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of Enterococcus species among companion birds and poultry in the Northeastern of Iran and determine the antibiotic susceptibility profile of enterococci. To this end, oral and cloacal swabs were collected from 150 caged birds. Antibiotic susceptibility profile was determined using the standard disk diffusion method. The results revealed that out of 150 samples, 56 (37.33%) cases contained enterococci. Most of the specimens (25.33%) were Enterococcus faecalis isolated from 6.66% of the samples. Additionally, 2.66% and 1.33% of the samples were contaminated with Enterococcus mundtii and Enterococcus gallinarum, respectively. Furthermore, Enterococcus malodoratus and Enterococcus raffinosus were isolated from 0.66% of the samples. The results revealed that all of the isolates of E. faecalis and E. faecium were resistant to more than five antimicrobial agents. Most of E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates showed resistance to Cefazolin, Tiamulin, Flumequine, and Cephalexin. Accordingly, the majority of the isolates had multidrug resistance to the tested antibiotics. In conclusion, the presence of multidrug-resistant enterococci in the birds living close to humans requires thorough observations due to the transmission of these organisms to humans., (Copyright © 2018, Archives of Razi Institute. Published by Kowsar.)