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Background: Central Serous Chorioretinopathy (CSCR) manifests as fluid accumulation between the neurosensory retina and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Elevated levels of steroid hormones have been implicated in CSCR pathogenesis. This investigation aims to delineate the gene expression patterns of CSCR-associated risk and steroid receptors across human choroidal cell types and RPE cells to discern potential underlying mechanisms., Methods: This study utilized a comprehensive query of transcriptomic data derived from non-pathological human choroid and RPE cells., Findings: CSCR-associated genes such as PTPRB , CFH , and others are predominantly expressed in the choroidal endothelium as opposed to the RPE. The androgen receptor, encoded by the AR gene, demonstrates heightened expression in the macular endothelium compared to peripheral regions, unlike other steroid receptor genes. AR -expressing endothelial cells display an augmented responsiveness to Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), indicating a propensity towards endothelial to mesenchymal transition (endMT) transcriptional profiling., Interpretation: These results highlight the proclivity of CSCR to manifest primarily within the choroidal vasculature rather than the RPE, suggesting its categorization as a vascular eye disorder. This study accentuates the pivotal role of androgenic steroids, in addition to glucocorticoids. The observed linkage to TGF-β-mediated endMT provides a potential mechanistic insight into the disease's etiology., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Purpose: To analyze the choroidal parameters of patients with chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC) and the association with central serous chorioretinopathy susceptibility genes., Methods: The choroidal vascular index (CVI) was obtained by binarizing spectral domain optical coherence tomography enhanced depth images of patients with cCSC and healthy age-matched controls. Patients with cCSC were genotyped for three central serous chorioretinopathy susceptibility single-nucleotide polymorphisms: rs4844392 ( mir-29b-2/CD46 ), rs1329428 ( CFH ), and rs2379120 (upstream GATA5 )., Results: One hundred three eyes with cCSC and 53 control eyes were included. There was a significant increase in the subfoveal choroidal area in both the affected (2.4 ± 0.6 mm 2 ) and fellow (2.2 ± 0.6 mm 2 ) eyes of patients with cCSC compared with controls (1.8 ± 0.5 mm 2 , P < 0.0001 and P < 0.0001). The CVI was reduced in patients with cCSC 63.5% ± 3.1% compared with controls 65.4% ± 2.3% ( P < 0.001) and also in the affected compared with the fellow eyes 64.6% ± 2.9% ( P < 0.01). There was a significant association between CVI in the cCSC group and presence of the risk single-nucleotide polymorphisms rs2379120 at GATA5 ( P < 0.01)., Conclusion: The relative reduction of CVI in patients with cCSC may suggest a persistence of vessel hyperpermeability over dilation in chronic disease. GATA5 is associated with CVI in patients with cCSC and therefore may have a role in choroidal vascularity., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. on behalf of the Opthalmic Communications Society, Inc.)

Purpose: To evaluate the genetic associations of different subtypes of central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR), neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD), and polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV)., Design: A case-control genetic association study., Methods: This study enrolled 217 CSCR, 341 nAMD, 288 PCV patients, and 1380 controls. The CSCR patients were classified into those with focal or diffuse leakage, with or without pigment epithelial detachment (PED), and with or without macular neovascularization (MNV). Associations between 11 variants from 8 genes, ADAMTS9, ANGPT2, ARMS2, CFH, NR3C2, PGF, TNFRSF10A and VIPR2, and diseases/subtypes were analyzed by logistic regression analysis adjusted for age and sex, and inter-phenotype comparison by heterogeneity test., Results: The CFH rs800292-A conferred a protective effect for CSCR with MNV (OR=0.44, P = 0.002) and a risk effect for CSCR without MNV (OR=1.31, P = 0.023). CSCR patients carrying rs800292-G had a 3.23-fold of increased risk towards developing secondary MNV (P = 1.45 ×10 -4 ). CFH rs3753394, rs800292 and rs1329428 showed similar effects among CSCR with MNV, nAMD and PCV, but opposite effects on CSCR without MNV. TNFRSF10A rs13278062-T was associated with overall CSCR but not with CSCR subtypes, nAMD or PCV. Moreover, CFH and ARMS2 SNPs showed heterogeneous effects in CSCR without MNV against CSCR with MNV, nAMD and PCV., Conclusions: Genetic associations of CSCR with MNV resembled nAMD and PCV compared to CSCR without MNV, indicating differential genetic effects on neovascularization and choroidopathy. Further investigation of the functional roles of CFH, ARMS2, and TNFRSF10A in CSCR, nAMD and PCV should help elucidate the mechanisms of these maculopathies., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest No conflicting relationship exists for any author., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) is characterized by serous detachment of the central neurosensory retina and it is one of the most common retinal disorders. Various genetic polymorphisms have been associated with CSCR development., Methods: The aim of our study was to investigate the potential association between ARMS2 (rs10490924) and NR3C2 (rs2070951 and rs5522) genes polymorphisms and CSCR development in a well defined Greek cohort for the first time in literature. We enrolled, in our case-control study, 48 CSCR patients and 137 controls. The ARMS2 (rs10490924) and NR3C2 (rs2070951 and rs5522) genes polymorphisms were analyzed using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) assays., Results: In our study, we found significant associations between ARMS2 rs10490924 and NR3C2 rs2070951 single nucleotide polymorphisms and CSCR development. Specifically, the GTrs10490924 genotype frequency of the ARMS2 gene was found to be significantly associated with risk of CSCR and T allele of rs10490924 ARMS2 gene was also found to increase risk for CSCR. The genotype frequency GC and CC of rs2070951 NR3C2 gene were observed more frequently in CSCR patients than controls and C allele of rs2070951 NR3C2 gene was also observed more frequently in CSCR patients than controls. Rs5522 of NR3C2 gene polymorphism was not found to be significantly associated with CSCR., Conclusion: Our findings showed, for the first time in a Greek population, that SNPs in the ARMS2 and NR3C2 genes are significantly associated with risk of CSCR. The results of this study support the involvement of extracellular matrix ( ARMS2 gene) and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) in the pathogenesis of CSCR.

Background: Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) is the fourth most prevalent retinal disease leading to age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and retinal atrophy. However, CSC's pathogenesis and therapeutic target need to be better understood., Results: We investigated exosomal microRNA in the aqueous humor of CSC patients using next-generation sequencing (NGS) to identify potential biomarkers associated with CSC pathogenesis. Bioinformatic evaluations and NGS were performed on exosomal miRNAs obtained from AH samples of 62 eyes (42 CSC and 20 controls). For subgroup analysis, patients were divided into treatment responders (CSC-R, 17 eyes) and non-responders (CSC-NR, 25 eyes). To validate the functions of miRNA in CECs, primary cultured-human choroidal endothelial cells (hCEC) of the donor eyes were utilized for in vitro assays. NGS detected 376 miRNAs. Our results showed that patients with CSC had 12 significantly upregulated and 17 downregulated miRNAs compared to controls. miR-184 was significantly upregulated in CSC-R and CSC-NR patients compared to controls and higher in CSC-NR than CSC-R. In vitro assays using primary cultured-human choroidal endothelial cells (hCEC) demonstrated that miR-184 suppressed the proliferation and migration of hCECs. STC2 was identified as a strong candidate for the posttranscriptional down-regulated target gene of miR-184., Conclusion: Our findings suggest that exosomal miR-184 may serve as a biomarker reflecting the angiostatic capacity of CEC in patients with CSC., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Importance: Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) is a serous maculopathy of unknown etiology. Two of 3 previously reported CSC genetic risk loci are also associated with AMD. Improved understanding of CSC genetics may broaden our understanding of this genetic overlap and unveil mechanisms in both diseases., Objective: To identify novel genetic risk factors for CSC and compare genetic risk factors for CSC and AMD., Design, Setting, and Participants: Using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth (ICD-9) and Tenth (ICD-10) Revision code-based inclusion and exclusion criteria, patients with CSC and controls were identified in both the FinnGen study and the Estonian Biobank (EstBB). Also included in a meta-analysis were previously reported patients with chronic CSC and controls. Data were analyzed from March 1 to September 31, 2022., Main Outcomes and Measures: Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) were performed in the biobank-based cohorts followed by a meta-analysis of all cohorts. The expression of genes prioritized by the polygenic priority score and nearest-gene methods were assessed in cultured choroidal endothelial cells and public ocular single-cell RNA sequencing data sets. The predictive utility of polygenic scores (PGSs) for CSC and AMD were evaluated in the FinnGen study., Results: A total of 1176 patients with CSC and 526 787 controls (312 162 female [59.3%]) were included in this analysis: 552 patients with CSC and 343 461 controls were identified in the FinnGen study, 103 patients with CSC and 178 573 controls were identified in the EstBB, and 521 patients with chronic CSC and 3577 controls were included in a meta-analysis. Two previously reported CSC risk loci were replicated (near CFH and GATA5) and 3 novel loci were identified (near CD34/46, NOTCH4, and PREX1). The CFH and NOTCH4 loci were associated with AMD but in the opposite direction. Prioritized genes showed increased expression in cultured choroidal endothelial cells compared with other genes in the loci (median [IQR] of log 2 [counts per million], 7.3 [0.6] vs 4.7 [3.7]; P = .004) and were differentially expressed in choroidal vascular endothelial cells in single-cell RNA sequencing data (mean [SD] fold change, 2.05 [0.38] compared with other cell types; P < 7.1 × 10-20). A PGS for AMD was predictive of reduced CSC risk (odds ratio, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.70-0.83 per +1 SD in AMD-PGS; P = 7.4 × 10-10). This association may have been mediated by loci containing complement genes., Conclusions and Relevance: In this 3-cohort genetic association study, 5 genetic risk loci for CSC were identified, highlighting a likely role for genes involved in choroidal vascular function and complement regulation. Results suggest that polygenic AMD risk was associated with reduced risk of CSC and that this genetic overlap was largely due to loci containing complement genes.

Purpose: Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) is a leading cause of central vision impairment in the working-age population with male predilection. Knowledge about the genetic basis of CSCR and its male predilection remained limited. This study aimed to evaluate the association patterns of multiple gene variants in chronic CSCR (cCSCR) in Chinese patients., Methods: This case-control genetic association study included 531 patients with cCSCR and 2383 controls from two independent Chinese cohorts. Nine single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of six genes, namely CFH, NR3C2, GATA5, VIPR2, TNFRSF10A, and ARMS2, were genotyped in all subjects. The main outcome measures were the association of individual single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) with cCSCR, the sex-stratification effects of individual SNP, and joint effects of different SNPs on cCSCR., Results: Association results in the two cohorts were consistent with low heterogeneities. In the combined analysis, SNPs CFH rs800292 (odds ratio [OR] = 1.25, P = 0.0020), CFH rs1329428 (OR = 1.23, P = 0.0037), and TNFRSF10A rs13278062 (OR = 1.43, P = 0.0014) were significantly associated with cCSCR. In stratification analysis by sex, 3 SNPs in CFH, rs3753394, rs800292, and rs1329428, were associated with cCSCR in male patients, but not in female patients. Joint analysis revealed that subjects homozygous for the risk alleles of CFH rs800292 and TNFRSF10A rs13278062 had over 4-fold of increased risk of cCSCR when compared with subjects homozygous for the non-risk alleles (OR = 4.06, P = 2.30 × 10-5)., Conclusions: This study revealed main and joint effects of SNPs in CFH and TNFRSF10A on cCSCR, and suggested CFH as a potential genetic factor underlying the male predilection of cCSCR. Further replication in other study populations is needed.

Purpose: To investigate the genetic architecture of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in a Japanese population., Design: Genome-wide association study (GWAS)., Participants: Three thousand seven hundred seventy-two patients with AMD and 16 770 control participants from the Japanese population were enrolled in the association analyses., Methods: We conducted a meta-analysis of 2 independent GWASs that included a total of 2663 patients with AMD and 9471 control participants using the imputation reference panel for genotype imputation specified for the Japanese population (n = 3541). A replication study was performed using an independent set of 1109 patients with AMD and 7299 control participants., Main Outcome Measures: Associations of genetic variants with AMD., Results: A meta-analysis of the 2 GWASs identified 6 loci significantly associated with AMD (P < 5.0 × 10 -8 ). Of these loci, 4 were known to be associated with AMD (CFH, C2/FB, TNFRSF10A, and ARMS2), and 2 were novel (rs4147157 near WBP1L and rs76228488 near GATA5). The newly identified associations were confirmed in a replication study (P < 0.01). After the meta-analysis of all datasets, we observed strong associations in these loci (P = 1.88 × 10 -12 and P = 1.35 × 10 -9 for meta-analysis for rs4147157 and rs76228488, respectively). When we looked up the associations in the reported central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) GWAS conducted in the Japanese population, both loci were associated significantly with CSC (P = 4.86 × 10 -3 and P = 4.28 × 10 -3 for rs4147157 and rs76228488, respectively). We performed a genetic colocalization analysis for these loci and estimated that the posterior probabilities of shared causal variants between AMD and CSC were 0.39 and 0.60 for WBP1L and GATA5, respectively. Genetic correlation analysis focusing on the epidemiologically suggested clinical risk factors implicated shared polygenic architecture between AMD and smoking cessation (r g [the measure of genetic correlation] = -0.33; P = 0.01; false discovery rate, 0.099)., Conclusions: Our findings imply shared genetic components conferring the risk of both AMD and CSC., Financial Disclosure(s): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found after the references., (Copyright © 2022 American Academy of Ophthalmology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To compare the clinical and genetic characteristics of simple and complex central serous chorioretinopathy using central serous chorioretinopathy international group criteria., Methods: Patients with idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy were included. Depending on the presence or absence of retinal pigment alterations greater than 2-disc areas in either eye, patients were classified into complex or simple types. Demographic factors and clinical findings were compared between groups. CFH variants, including rs800292 and rs1329428, were genotyped using TaqMan technology., Results: A total of 319 consecutive patients were evaluated at the initial presentation. Of them, 53 (16.6%) had the complex type. The complex type was exclusively seen in men (100% vs. 79.0%, P = 2.0 × 10 -4 ) and demonstrated a significantly higher proportion of bilateral involvement (75.5% vs. 17.7%, P = 6.2 × 10 -18 ) and descending tract(s) (83.0% vs. 0%, P = 1.2 × 10 -57 ) than the simple type. Increased choroidal thickness (425 ± 131 vs. 382 ± 110, P = 0.02) and decreased central retinal thickness (274 ± 151 vs. 337 ± 136, P = 2.9 × 10 -4 ) were observed for the complex versus simple type. The risk allele frequencies of both variants were significantly higher in the complex versus simple type (rs800292: 61.3% vs. 48.7%, P = 0.018; rs1329428: 65.1% vs. 54.3%, P = 0.04)., Conclusion: In this new classification system, the complex type has distinct genetic and clinical characteristics compared with the simple type.

Aims: To identify single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) by a systematic review and meta-analysis, and to compare the association profiles between CSCR, neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) and polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV)., Methods: We searched the EMBASE, PubMed and Web of Science for genetic studies of CSCR from the starting dates of the databases to 12 September 2020. We then performed meta-analyses on all SNPs reported by more than two studies and calculated the pooled OR and 95% CIs. We also conducted sensitivity analysis and adopted the funnel plot to assess potential publication bias., Results: Totally 415 publications were reviewed, among them 10 were eligible for meta-analysis. We found 10 SNPs that have been reported at least twice. Meta-analysis and sensitivity analysis confirmed significant associations between CSCR and six SNPs in three genes, namely age-related maculopathy susceptibility 2 ( ARMS2 ) (rs10490924, OR=1.37; p=0.00064), complement factor H ( CFH ) (rs800292, OR=1.44; p=7.80×10 -5 ; rs1061170, OR=1.34; p=0.0028; rs1329428, OR=1.40; p=0.012; and rs2284664, OR=1.36; p=0.0089) and tumour necrosis factor receptor superfamily, member 10a ( TNFRSF10A ) (rs13278062, OR=1.34; p=1.44×10 -15 ). Among them, only TNFRSF10A rs13278062 showed the same trend of effect on CSCR, nAMD and PCV, while the SNPs in ARMS2 and CFH showed opposite trends in the SNP associations., Conclusions: This study confirmed the associations of ARMS2 , CFH and TNFRSF10A with CSCR, and revealed that ARMS2 , CFH and TNFRSF10A may affect different phenotypic expressions of CSCR, nAMD and PCV., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Purpose: To evaluate the association between central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) susceptibility genes and choroidal parameters in a large Japanese cohort., Study Design: Retrospective cohort study., Methods: Of the 9850 individuals in the Nagahama study whose second visit was between 2013 and 2016, those with optical coherence tomography (OCT) images with enhanced depth imaging (EDI), axial length, and genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping data were included. We calculated subfoveal choroidal thickness (SFCT), choroidal vascularity index (CVI), normalized choroidal intensity (NCI), and vertical asymmetry of choroidal thickness. Genome-wide quantitative trait locus (QTL) analyses were performed for each parameter. We screened for four CSC susceptibility SNPs: CFH rs800292, TNFRSF10A rs13278062, GATA5 rs6061548, and VIPR2 rs3793217. Whenever an SNP was not included in the genotyping data after quality control, its proxy SNP was selected., Results: In total, 4586 participants were evaluated. CFH rs800292 was significantly associated with SFCT (P < 0.001) and CVI (P < 0.001). VIPR2 rs3793217 was significantly associated with SFCT (P < 0.001) but not with CVI. Whereas, TNFRSF10A rs13254617 and GATA5 rs6061548 were not significantly associated with SFCT or CVI. None of these SNPs was associated with NCI EDI and asymmetry of choroidal thickness., Conclusion: CFH, VIPR2, TNFRSF10A, and GATA5 showed different association patterns with choroidal parameters. Although the mechanism of CSC pathogenesis by choroidal changes is not fully understood, this finding suggests that each gene may be involved in different mechanisms of CSC development. Our genetic study provides a basis for understanding the role of CSC susceptibility genes., (© 2022. Japanese Ophthalmological Society.)

Purpose: To identify susceptibility genes for macular neovascularization (MNV) development in central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC)., Design: Genome-wide survival analysis using a longitudinal cohort study., Participants: We included 402 and 137 patients with CSC but without MNV at their first visit from the Kyoto CSC Cohort and Kobe CSC dataset, respectively. All patients underwent detailed ophthalmic examinations, including multimodal imaging, such as fundus autofluorescence, spectral-domain OCT, and fluorescein angiography/indocyanine green angiography or OCT angiography., Methods: We conducted a genome-wide survival analysis using the Kyoto CSC Cohort. We applied the Cox proportional hazard model to adjust for age, sex, and the first principal component. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with P values < 1.0 × 10 -5 were carried forward to the replication in the Kobe CSC dataset. Moreover, we evaluated the contribution of previously reported age-related macular degeneration (AMD) susceptibility loci. We used FUMA and ToppFun for the functional enrichment analysis., Main Outcome Measures: The association between SNPs and MNV development in patients with CSC., Results: Rs370974631 near ARMS2 displayed a genome-wide significant association in the meta-analysis of discovery and replication result (hazard ratio [HR] meta , 3.63; P meta  = 5.76 × 10 -9 ). Among previously reported AMD susceptibility loci, we additionally identified CFH rs800292 (HR, 0.39, P = 2.55 × 10 -4 ), COL4A3 rs4276018 (HR, 0.26, P = 1.56 × 10 -3 ), and B3GALTL rs9564692 (HR, 0.56, P = 8.30 × 10 -3 ) as susceptibility loci for MNV development in CSC. The functional enrichment analysis revealed significant enrichment of 8 pathways (GO:0051561, GO:0036444, GO:0008282, GO:1990246, GO:0015272, GO:0030955, GO:0031420, and GO:0005242) related to ion transport., Conclusions: ARMS2, CFH, COL4A3, and B3GALTL were identified as susceptibility genes for MNV development in CSC. These 4 genes are known as susceptibility genes for AMD, whereas COL4A3 and B3GALTL were previously reported to be polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV)-specific susceptibility genes. Our findings revealed the shared genetic susceptibility between PCV and MNV secondary to CSC., (Copyright © 2022 American Academy of Ophthalmology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To identify a novel corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) gene variant relevant in patients with central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC)., Methods: We performed a genetic study of CSC in families and sporadic cases with controls. Using whole-exome sequencing and linkage analysis, we identified a heterozygous insertion variant, Gln52insPro, in the CRH gene that cosegregated in two Chinese families with CSC. This variant was evaluated among an additional 1307 patients with CSC and 1438 ethnicity-matched control individuals from three independent Chinese cohorts., Results: The CRH variant was strongly associated with CSC in these cohorts of Chinese patients (Pmeta = 1.24 × 10-11; odds ratio, 3.01; 95% confidence interval, 2.15-4.21). The risk variant Gln52insPro decreased CRH gene expression., Conclusions: Our results implicate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal stress response system in the pathogenesis of CSC and provide a novel rationale for therapeutic intervention.

To investigate the differences in clinical and genetic characteristics between males and females with central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC). Consecutive 302 patients (mean age; 56.3 ± 11.7, male/female: 249/53) with CSC were evaluated on the initial presentation. All CSC patients underwent fluorescein angiography and indocyanine green angiography (FA/ICGA), swept-source or spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (OCT), and fundus autofluorescence (FAF) to confirm a diagnosis. All patients were genotyped for rs800292 and rs1329428 variants of CFH using TaqMan technology. On the initial presentation, female patients were significantly older (p = 2.1 × 10 -4 , female 61.6 ± 12.4 vs male 55.1 ± 11.3) and had thinner subfoveal choroidal thickness (p = 3.8 × 10 -5 ) and higher central retinal thickness (p = 3.0 × 10 -3 ) compared to males. A descending tract was more frequently seen in males than in females (p = 8.0 × 10 -4 , 18.1% vs 0%). Other clinical characteristics were comparable between the sexes. The risk allele frequency of both variants including CFH rs800292 and CFH rs1329428 was comparable between males and females (CFH rs800292 A allele male 51.2% vs female 47.2%, CFH rs1329428 T allele male 56.2% vs 52.8%). On the initial presentation, age, subfoveal choroidal thickness and central retinal thickness differ between males and females in eyes with CSC. A descending tract may be a strong male finding in CSC., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Objectives: To investigate the association of two different single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the complement factor H (CFH) gene with central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) in the Iranian population., Methods: This is a case-control study with 95 participants in each group who were stratified according to their various ethnical variations. Primers for rs1329428 and rs3753394 polymorphisms were synthesized. DNA was extracted from peripheral blood leukocytes and underwent PCR and high-resolution melt analysis., Results: The frequency of tt, ct, and cc genotypes for rs1329428 polymorphism was 22 (26.5%), 46 (55.4%), and 15 (18.1%) in acute CSCR and 5 (41.7%), 5 (41.7%), and 2 (16.7%) in chronic CSCR respectively with no significant difference between case and control groups. The frequency of tt, ct, and cc genotypes for rs3753394 polymorphism was 31 (37.3%), 14 (16.9%), and 38 (45.8%) in acute CSCR and 4 (33.3%), 3 (25%), and 5 (41.7%) in chronic CSCR respectively. There was a significant difference between patients of Persian descent and controls in rs3753394 polymorphism (P = 0.00, chi-square test). There was no statistical difference in the frequency of polymorphism between acute and chronic patients (P = 0.64 and P = 0.79 respectively, chi-square test)., Conclusions: The rs3753394 polymorphism is probably associated with CSCR in Persian ethnicity. Further studies are required to validate the implications of this finding in clinical practice., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The Royal College of Ophthalmologists.)

Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) is a chorioretinal disease that usually affects the middle-aged population and is characterised by a thickened choroid, retinal pigment epithelium detachment, and subretinal fluid with a tendency towards spontaneous resolution. We investigated 13 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 50 Slovenian acute CSC patients and 71 healthy controls in Complement Factor H (CFH), Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 3 Group C Member 2 (NR3C2), Cadherin 5 (CDH5) Age-Related Maculopathy Susceptibility 2 (ARMS2), TNF Receptor Superfamily Member 10a (TNFRSF10A), collagen IV alpha 3 (COL4A3) and collagen IV alpha 4 (COL4A4) genes using high-resolution melt analysis. Statistical calculations revealed significant differences in genotype frequencies for CFH rs1329428 ( p = 0.042) between investigated groups and an increased risk for CSC in patients with TC ( p = 0.040) and TT ( p = 0.034) genotype. Genotype-phenotype correlation analysis revealed that CSC patients with CC genotype in CFH rs3753394 showed a higher tendency for spontaneous CSC episode resolution at 3 months from the disease onset ( p = 0.0078), which could indicate clinical significance of SNP testing in CSC patients. Bioinformatics analysis of the non-coding polymorphisms showed alterations in transcription factor binding motifs for CFH rs3753394, CDH5 rs7499886 and TNFRSF10A rs13278062. No association of collagen IV polymorphisms with CSC was found in this study.

Purpose: Pachychoroid spectrum disease encompasses a set of macular disorders secondary to an abnormally thick choroid. However, the pathological process underlying pachychoroid spectrum disease and its overlap with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) remain unclear. This review aimed to understand the underlying pathology, classification, and phenotypes of pachychoroid spectrum disease., Methods: This comprehensive literature review was performed based on a search of peer-reviewed published papers relevant to the current knowledge of pachychoroid disease spectrum., Results: Pachychoroid is primarily a bilateral phenomenon; the main pathological lesions include choriocapillaris attenuation and abnormally dilated pachyvessels. Chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) and pachychoroid neovasculopathy (PNV) show similar morphological changes and angiogenic cytokine levels. The subretinal fluid in PNV may not accurately indicate PNV activity. Besides, types 1 and 2 of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) may be involved in primary pachychoroidal disease. Both choroidal arteriosclerosis and higher hydrostatic pressure contribute to hyalinized choroidal arteries and aneurysmal dilatations, resulting in PNV progression to polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV). Thus, pachychoroid-related type 2 CNV and chronic CSC could be considered as PNV (IIIc) and as a precursor of PNV (IIIa), respectively. Tangled PCV on optical coherence tomography angiography that fails to develop aneurysms should be classified as a subtype of PNV or a forme fruste of PCV., Conclusions: Multiple disorders of the pachychoroid spectrum are considered as a continuous disease process, ultimately stimulated by choroidal malfunction. PCV overlaps both AMD and pachychoroid disease, especially for thin-choroid and bilateral types. The terminology and classification of pachychoroid spectrum disease should be used cautiously.

Purpose: To survey the prevalence and clinical and genetic characteristics of pachydrusen in eyes with central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) and those of Japanese individuals in the general population., Design: Prospective, observational cohort study., Participants: One thousand thirty-seven Japanese patients were included in this study. Three hundred seven patients (614 eyes) had treatment-naïve CSC without choroidal neovascularization in either eye, whereas 730 individuals (1640 eyes) were Japanese individuals from the general population without explicit ocular diseases., Methods: Pachydrusen were detected using color fundus photography, and subfoveal choroidal thickness was measured using OCT. Genotypic distributions of 3 single nucleotide polymorphisms, ARMS2 A69S, CFH I62V, and CFH Y402H, were evaluated., Main Outcome Measures: Prevalence of pachydrusen and association with choroidal thickness., Results: The prevalence of pachydrusen was significantly higher among CSC patients than among the general population group (40.1% vs. 15.6%; P < 0.001). Individuals with pachydrusen in either group were significantly older than those without pachydrusen (CSC patients: 62.1 years vs. 48.8 years [P < 0.001]; general individuals: 70.3 years vs. 51.9 years [P < 0.001]). No significant difference was found in subfoveal choroidal thickness between those with and without pachydrusen (CSC patients: 370 μm vs. 375 μm; [P = 0.574]; general population: 297 μm vs. 303 μm [P = 0.521]). However, after adjusting for age, gender, and refractive error, subfoveal choroidal thickness was notably thicker in individuals with pachydrusen than that in individuals without pachydrusen in both groups (P = 0.003 and P = 0.013, respectively). No significant difference was found in genotype distributions between CSC patients with pachydrusen and those without it; whereas, the T allele frequency of ARMS2 A69S was higher in general population individuals with pachydrusen than that in general population individuals without pachydrusen (42.2% vs. 33.9%; P < 0.001; OR, 1.86, adjusted for age, gender, and choroidal thickness)., Conclusions: Pachydrusen was observed more frequently in CSC patients compared with individuals from the general population. In both groups, pachydrusen was associated with a thicker choroid, suggesting that pachydrusen should be considered as a significant sign of pachychoroid., (Copyright © 2020 American Academy of Ophthalmology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To study genetic predispositions and differences between severe chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC), nonsevere cCSC, and acute central serous chorioretinopathy (aCSC)., Methods: One hundred seventy-three severe cCSC patients, 272 nonsevere cCSC patients, 135 aCSC patients, and 1,385 control individuals were included. Eight single-nucleotide polymorphisms were genotyped in the ARMS2 (rs10490924), CFH (rs800292, rs1061170, rs1065489, rs1329428, rs2284664, rs3753394), and NR3C2 (rs2070951). Additionally, C4B gene copy numbers were analyzed., Results: A significant association in 5 single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the CFH gene could be reproduced among severe cCSC patients, including rs800292 (P = 0.0014; odds ratio [OR] = 1.93; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.51-2.47), rs1065489 (P = 2.22 × 10; OR = 0.49; 95% CI = 0.34-0.72), rs1329428 (P = 0.001; OR = 1.89; 95% CI = 1.49-2.40), rs2284664 (P = 1.21× 10; OR = 1.65; 95% CI = 1.28-2.13), and rs3753394 (P = 6.10× 10; OR = 0.61; 95% CI = 0.46-0.81). Carrying three C4B copies was protective for severe cCSC (P = 0.001; OR = 0.29; 95% CI = 0.14-0.61). No significant differences in allele frequencies could be found among the CSC phenotypes., Conclusion: Acute CSC, nonsevere cCSC, and severe cCSC all showed a similar association with the CFH and C4B genes, and the three phenotypes could not be distinguished based on the genetics. This shows that despite the differences in clinical presentation and severity, there is an overlap in the genetic predisposition of different CSC phenotypes. Nongenetic factors may play a more important role in determining the clinical course of CSC.

Purpose: Reduced-fluence photodynamic therapy (RFPDT) has proven effective for some patients with chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC). Several clinicodemographic factors influencing treatment response have been identified, but associations with genetic factors have not been examined. Therefore, we investigated the associations of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) implicated in cCSC pathogenesis with clinical outcome following RFPDT., Methods: This was a retrospective study of 87 eyes from 87 patients with cCSC who underwent RFPDT and were followed up for more than 12 months. Patients were divided into a good response group (53 patients) and a poor response group (34 patients) based on either persistence or recurrence of subretinal fluid detected with spectral domain optical coherence tomography after the first application of RFPDT. SNPs in the genes encoding age-related maculopathy susceptibility protein 2 ( ARMS2 , SNP rs10490924) and complement factor H ( CFH , SNP rs800292) were genotyped using TaqMan technology., Results: There were no statistically significant differences in the baseline characteristics between the response groups except the degree of hyperfluorescence on indocyanine green angiography (ICGA; p = 0.011). The minor (T) allele frequency of ARMS2 (rs10490924) were statistically significantly lower in the good response group than in the poor response group (24.0% versus 41.0%, p = 0.021). Further, the good response frequency was statistically significantly lower in patients with at least one minor allele (GT or TT) compared to the homozygous major allele group (GG; p<0.05). The baseline best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) at 12 months after RFPDT was statistically significantly better in the GG carriers than in the GT or TT carriers (p<0.01). Logistic regression analysis showed less intense hyperfluorescence on ICGA, and the T allele of ARMS2 (rs10490924) was statistically significantly associated with poor response to PDT treatment (p = 0.012, p = 0.039, respectively)., Conclusions: Carriers of the ARMS2 rs10490924 minor allele (GT or TT) demonstrated a higher subretinal fluid persistence or recurrence rate and poorer visual outcome following RFPDT. In addition to the ICGA findings, genotyping of ARMS2 (rs10490924) may assist in the selection of patients with cCSC most likely to benefit from RFPDT., (Copyright © 2020 Molecular Vision.)

Purpose: To evaluate the association between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the complement factor H (CFH) gene and response to PDT in patients with CSC., Methods: 103 eyes from 93 patients with CSC were enrolled from Department of Ophthalmology of the People's Hospital Peking University. Genotyping for selected SNPs in the CFH gene was performed, and multivariate linear analysis was used to identify factors influencing PDT treatment outcomes. Genetics associations between SNPs in the CFH gene and response to PDT in patients with CSC were analyzed., Results: None of the seven SNPs examined in this study (rs800292, rs1061170, rs3753394, rs3753396, rs2284664, rs1329428, and rs1065489) showed significant associations with 1-month outcomes after PDT in patients with CSC (P > 0.05). Baseline BCVA changed at 1 month after PDT (P < 0.001), and baseline retinal thickness was associated with changes in retinal thickness at 1 month after PDT (P < 0.001). Age was significantly associated with resolution of SRF at 1 month after PDT (P = 0.004)., Conclusions: There were no significant associations between SNPs in the CFH gene and 1-month outcomes after PDT in patients with CSC. However, baseline BCVA, baseline retinal thickness, and age were significantly associated with response to PDT in patients with CSC. Larger studies with more power are necessary to further determine whether an association exists between SNPs in the CFH gene and PDT in patients with CSC.

We evaluated phenotype and genotype correlation of central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) patients with or without irregular pigment epithelial detachment (PED) on optical coherence tomography (OCT). For CSC, a flat, irregular protrusion of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) with hyper-reflective sub-RPE fluid on OCT was defined as an irregular PED. Participants were classified into 5 subgroups; (1) total CSC (n = 280) (2) CSC with irregular PED (n = 126) (3) CSC without irregular PED (n = 154) (4) typical choroidal neovascularization (CNV) (n = 203) and (5) polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV) (n = 135). Ten known major AMD-associated single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were analyzed. Age, sex adjusted logistic regression was performed for the association between subgroups. Association analysis between CSC without irregular PED and CNV revealed that significant difference for rs10490924 in ARMS2, rs10737680 in CFH, and marginally significant difference for rs800292 in CFH. Between CSC without irregular PED and PCV, rs10490924, rs10737680, and rs800292 were significantly different. In contrast, CSC with irregular PED and CNV revealed no SNP showing significant difference. Between CSC with irregular PED and PCV, only rs10490924 was significantly different. CSC with irregular PED and CSC without irregular PED revealed significant difference for rs800292, and marginal difference for rs10737680. These findings suggest CSC patients with irregular PED are genetically different from those without irregular PED and may have genetic and pathophysiologic overlap with AMD patients.

The recently emerged pachychoroid concept has changed the understanding of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which is a major cause of blindness; recent studies attributed AMD in part to pachychoroid disease central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC), suggesting the importance of elucidating the CSC pathogenesis. Our large genome-wide association study followed by validation studies in three independent Japanese and European cohorts, consisting of 1546 CSC samples and 13,029 controls, identified two novel CSC susceptibility loci: TNFRSF10A-LOC389641 and near GATA5 (rs13278062, odds ratio = 1.35, P  = 1.26 × 10 -13 ; rs6061548, odds ratio = 1.63, P  = 5.36 × 10 -15 ). A T allele at TNFRSF10A-LOC389641 rs13278062, a risk allele for CSC, is known to be a risk allele for AMD. This study not only identified new susceptibility genes for CSC, but also improves the understanding of the pathogenesis of AMD., Competing Interests: Competing interestsThe authors declare no competing interests., (© The Author(s) 2019.)

Purpose: To investigate genetic associations in white patients with acute central serous chorioretinopathy (aCSC) and to assess genetic differences between aCSC and chronic CSC (cCSC)., Methods: A total of 135 aCSC patients, 272 cCSC patients, and 1,385 control individuals were included. Eight single nucleotide polymorphisms were genotyped for ARMS2 (rs10490924), CFH (rs800292, rs1061170, rs1065489, rs1329428, rs2284664, rs3753394), and NR3C2 (rs2070951). Also, C4B gene copy numbers were analyzed., Results: Three single nucleotide polymorphisms in the CFH gene were significantly associated with aCSC: rs800292 (P = 0.003, odds ratio = 1.53 [95% confidence interval = 1.15-2.03]), rs1061170 (P = 0.002, odds ratio = 0.64 [95% confidence interval = 0.48-0.86]), and rs1329428 (P = 5.87 × 10, odds ratio = 1.83 [95% confidence interval = 1.40-2.38]). A significant difference was found in the distribution of C4B gene copy numbers in aCSC patients compared with controls (P = 0.0042). No differences could be found among the selected variants between aCSC and cCSC patients., Conclusion: Three variants in the CFH gene and copy number variations in C4B were found to be significantly associated with the risk of aCSC development. Despite the differences in clinical presentation, acute and chronic CSC may share a similar genetic predisposition based on our present analysis. Other genetic and/or nongenetic risk factors may be more influential in the differentiation toward an acute or a chronic phenotype of CSC.

Purpose: To investigate potential genetic prognostic factors associated with spontaneous resolution of serous retinal detachment (SRD) and development of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC)., Design: Retrospective analysis of a case series., Participants: One hundred ninety-six eyes from 196 patients with active CSC., Methods: We retrospectively reviewed medical records and determined the presence or absence of SRD using OCT imaging. The duration until the spontaneous SRD resolution was analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier method, and associations between the duration to spontaneous resolution and Complement factor H (CFH) I62V, Age-Related Maculopathy Susceptibility 2 (ARMS2) A69S, or Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Receptor 2 (VIPR2) rs3793217 genotypes were evaluated, followed by the assessment of their associations with CNV that developed secondary to CSC., Main Outcome Measures: Genetic associations of CFH rs800292, ARMS2 rs10490924, and VIPR2 rs3793217 genotypes with the duration to spontaneous resolution of SRD and development of CNV during follow-up of CSC., Results: In 105 of the 196 study participants, we revealed spontaneous SRD resolution in their eyes during follow-up evaluation. Sixty-eight eyes received treatment, and 23 eyes dropped out before spontaneous SRD resolution. Among the 3 genetic polymorphisms assessed herein, only the CFH I62V genotype was predictive of spontaneous SRD resolution among its genotypes (P = 0.017); the average durations for the spontaneous SRD resolution for the individuals with AA, AG, and GG genotype were 126.6±115.5 days, 157.7±243.1 days, and 242.7±198.0 days, respectively, indicating that the G allele was associated with significantly longer persistent SRD (P = 0.035). Among the total number of eyes of all participants, 14 demonstrated CNV during follow-up evaluation. The CFH I62V G and ARMS2 A69S T alleles were associated significantly with CNV development (P = 0.0023 and P = 0.019, respectively), whereas the VIPR2 rs3793217 genotype was not., Conclusions: The CFH I62V and ARMS2 A69S genotypes can predict the prognosis of CSC. Knowledge of the genetic status may help physicians determine the need for early treatment and possibly prevent subsequent CNV development. Further prospective studies are needed to confirm the observed genotype-phenotype relationship., (Copyright © 2019 American Academy of Ophthalmology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC) is a multifactorial eye disease characterized by subretinal fluid accumulation that leads to vision loss. Clinically, cCSC is associated with stress, hypercortisolism and corticosteroid use, and is more frequent in males (80%) than in females (20%). Current genetic studies on cCSC have thus far focussed on common variants, but familial occurrence of cCSC also suggests a role for rare variants in the disease susceptibility. Therefore, in this study, we performed exome sequencing of cCSC patients to elucidate the role of rare (protein-altering) variants in the disease. Exome sequencing was performed on 269 cCSC patients and 1,586 controls. Data were processed according to the Genome-Analysis-Toolkit (GATK) best practices. Principal component analysis was performed to check for genetic ancestry and only unrelated subjects of European descent were retained. Burden, SKAT and SKAT-O tests were performed using 2 different grouping criteria. One group included protein-altering variants only, while the other contained synonymous and splice site variants as well. The gene-based analyses were performed using the SKAT R-package correcting for two principal components using two approaches; (1) on the entire cohort correcting for sex and (2) on males and females separately. Additionally, the gene-based associations of genes at previously reported cCSC loci were investigated. After filtering, the dataset contained 263 cCSC patients (208 males [79%]) and 1352 controls (671 males [50%]) carrying 197,915 protein-altering variants in 16,370 genes and 330,689 exonic variants in 18,173 genes. Analysis stratified by sex identified significant associations with the PIGZ (P SKAT  = 9.19 × 10 -7 & P SKAT-O  = 2.48 × 10 -6 ), DUOX1 (P SKAT  = 1.03 × 10 -6 ), RSAD1 (P SKAT  = 1.92 × 10 -7 & P SKAT-O  = 8.57 × 10 -8 ) and LAMB3 (P Burden  = 1.40 × 10 -6 & P SKAT-O  = 1.14 × 10 -6 ) genes in female cCSC patients, after correction for multiple testing. The number of rare variant carriers in these genes was significantly higher in the female cCSC cohort compared to female controls (45,5% vs. 18.5%, P = 1.92 × 10 -6 , OR = 3.67 [95% CI = 2.09-6.46]). No significant associations were identified in the entire cohort nor in the male patients. In this exome study on cCSC patients, we have identified PIGZ, DUOX1, RSAD1 and LAMB3 as potential new candidate genes for cCSC in females. The sex-specific associations identified here suggest a possible interaction between rare genetic factors and sex for cCSC, but replication of these findings in additional cohorts of cCSC patients is necessary.

Background: Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) is a chorioretinal disease characterized by fluid accumulation between the neuroretina and retinal pigment epithelium with unknown etiology. Family studies have suggested a heritable component for CSC with an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern. Therefore, exome sequencing was performed on familial cCSC to indentify the genetic components contributing to familial cCSC., Methods: Exome sequencing was performed on 72 individuals of 18 families with CSC. In these families, we determined whether rare genetic variants (minor allele frequency < 1%) were segregated with CSC and also performed familial gene-burden analysis., Results: In total, 11 variants segregated in two out of 18 families. One of these variants, c.4145C>T; p.T1382I (rs61758735) in the PTPRB gene, was also associated with CSC in a large case-control cohort sequenced previously (p = 0.009). Additionally, in 28 genes two or more different heterozygous variants segregated in two or more families, but no gene showed consistent associations in both the family gene-burden results and gene-burden analysis in the case-control cohort., Conclusion: We identified potential candidate genes for familial CSC and managed to exclude Mendelian inheritance of variants in one or a limited number of genes. Instead, familial CSC may be a heterogeneous Mendelian disease caused by variants in many different genes, or alternatively CSC may represent a complex disease to which both environmental factors and genetics contribute., (© 2019 The Authors. Molecular Genetics & Genomic Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Purpose: To assess ophthalmologic characteristics in patients and unaffected individuals in families with multiple members affected by central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC), both at presentation and long-term follow-up., Methods: In 103 subjects from 23 families with at least 2 affected patients with CSC per family, prospective extensive ophthalmologic examination was performed, including best-corrected visual acuity, indirect ophthalmoscopy, digital color fundus photography, optical coherence tomography, fundus autofluorescence, and fluorescein angiography imaging. From these, 24 individuals from 6 families had undergone extensive ophthalmologic examination in either 1994 or 1995 and were followed up in this study., Results: Subretinal fluid accumulation on optical coherence tomography and/or "hot spots" of leakage on fluorescein angiography indicative of CSC were detected in 45 of 103 phenotyped subjects (44%). Findings suggestive of CSC, but without the presence of subretinal fluid on optical coherence tomography and/or "hot spots" of leakage on fluorescein angiography, were observed in an additional 27 family members (26%). In 4 of 17 previously nonaffected subjects (24%) from the 24 individuals that were followed up after more than 20 years, we found more severe abnormalities., Conclusion: Extensive ophthalmologic phenotyping resulted in the detection of (suggestive) CSC in 52% of family members of patients with CSC. Genetic factors may play an important role in these specific CSC cases. Moreover, during follow-up, progressive disease can occur in a noteworthy number of patients.

Background: Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) is a common chorioretinal disease, characterized by choroidal hyperpermeability leading to neurosensory and/or retinal pigment epithelial detachments. Hypofibrinolysis due to higher plasma concentrations of plasminogen activator type 1 (PAI-1) or lower activity of tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of CSC. Functional polymorphisms in the PAI-1 (SERPINE1) and t-Pa (PLAT) are thus potential risk factors for CSC. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate a hypothesized association between the PAI-1 4G/5G and the t-PA -7351C > T gene variants and the presence of CSC., Methods: The present study comprised 172 CSC patients and 313 control subjects. Genotypes of the PAI-1 4G/5G and the t-PA -7351C > T polymorphisms were determined by TaqMan TM fluorogenic 5'-exonuclease assays., Results: Allelic frequencies or genotype distributions of neither the PAI-1 4G/5G nor the t-PA -7531C > T polymorphisms were significantly different between patients with CSC and control subjects (PAI-1 4G/4G: 24.4% vs. 20.4, p = 0.36; t-PA -7351CC: 42.4% vs. 46.0%, p = 0.50). After adjusting for age and gender presence of the PAI-1 4G/4G genotype was associated with a non-significant odds ratio (OR) of 1.21 (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 0.77-1.92, p = 0.41), while homozygosity for the t-PA -7351C allele yielded a non-significant OR of 0.91 (95% CI: 0.62-1.33, p = 0.62) for CSC., Conclusion: The present study suggests that both the t-PA -7351C > T and the PAI-1 4G/5G gene variants are unlikely major risk factors for CSC.

Purpose: Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) is a retinal disorder that often affects the vision of middle-aged people yet the molecular mechanisms of CSC remain unknown. This study was conducted to identify genetic factors influencing individual differences in susceptibility to CSC., Methods: A two-stage genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted with a total of 320 unrelated Japanese idiopathic CSC cases and 3245 population-based controls. In a discovery stage, 137 unrelated Japanese idiopathic CSC cases and 1174 population-based controls were subjected to GWAS, followed by a replication study using an additional 183 individuals with idiopathic CSC and 2071 population-based volunteers. The results of the discovery and replication stages were combined to conduct a meta-analysis., Results: In the two-stage GWAS, rs11865049 located at SLC7A5 in chromosome 16q24.2 was identified as a novel disease susceptibility locus for CSC, as evident from the discovery and replication results using meta-analysis (combined P = 9.71 × 10-9, odds ratio = 2.10)., Conclusions: The results of the present study demonstrated that SLC7A5 might be the potential candidate gene associated with CSC, indicating a previously unidentified molecular mechanism of CSC.

Importance: To date, several targeted genetic studies on chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC) have been performed; however, unbiased genome-wide studies into the genetics of cCSC have not been reported. To discover new genetic loci associated with cCSC and to better understand the causative mechanism of this disease, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) on patients with cCSC., Objective: To discover new genetic loci and pathways associated with cCSC and to predict the association of genetic variants with gene expression in patients with cCSC., Design, Setting, and Participants: This case-control GWAS was completed in the general community, 3 referral university medical centers, and outpatient care on Europeans individuals with cCSC and population-based control participants. Genotype data was collected from May 2013 to August 2017, and data analysis occurred from August 2017 to November 2017., Main Outcomes and Measures: Associations of single-nucleotide polymorphisms, haplotypes, genetic pathways, and predicted gene expression with cCSC., Results: A total of 521 patients with cCSC (median age, 51 years; interquartile range [IQR], 44-59 years; 420 [80.6%] male) and 3577 European population-based control participants (median age, 52 years; IQR, 37-71 years; 1630 [45.6%] male) were included. One locus on chromosome 1 at the complement factor H (CFH) gene reached genome-wide significance and was associated with an increased risk of cCSC (rs1329428; odds ratio [OR], 1.57 [95% CI, 1.38-1.80]; P = 3.12 × 10-11). The CFH haplotypes H1 and H3 were protective for cCSC (H1: OR, 0.64 [95% CI, 0.53-0.77]; P = 2.18 × 10-6; H3: OR, 0.54 [95% CI, 0.42-0.70]; P = 2.49 × 10-6), whereas haplotypes H2, H4, H5, and the aggregate of rare CFH haplotypes conferred increased risk (H2: OR, 1.57 [95% CI, 1.30-1.89]; P = 2.18 × 10-6; H4: OR, 1.43 [95% CI, 1.13-1.80]; P = 2.49 × 10-3; H5: OR, 1.80 [95% CI, 1.36-2.39]; P = 4.61 × 10-5; rare haplotypes: OR, 1.99 [95% CI, 1.43-2.77]; P = 4.59 × 10-5). Pathway analyses showed involvement of the complement cascade and alternative open reading frame (ARF) pathway in cCSC. Using PrediXcan, we identified changes in predicted expression of complement genes CFH, complement factor H related 1 (CFHR1), complement factor related 4 (CFHR4), and membrane cofactor protein (MCP/CD46). Additionally, the potassium sodium-activated channel subfamily T member 2 (KCNT2) and tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 10a (TNFRSF10A) genes were differentially expressed in patients with cCSC., Conclusions and Relevance: In this GWAS on cCSC, we identified a locus on chromosome 1 at the CFH gene that was significantly associated with cCSC, and we report protective and risk-conferring haplotypes in this gene. Pathway analyses were enriched for complement genes, and gene expression analysis suggests a role for CFH, CFHR1, CFHR4, CD46, KCNT2, and TNFRSF10A in the disease. Taken together, these results underscore the potential importance of the complement pathway in the causative mechanisms of cCSC.

Importance: Chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC) is a chorioretinal disease with unknown disease etiology. The glucocorticoid receptor and the mineralocorticoid receptor, 2 glucocorticoid-binding receptors, might be involved in the pathogenesis of cCSC., Objective: To assess the association of functional variants and haplotypes in the glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1) and mineralocorticoid receptor (NR3C2) genes with cCSC., Design, Setting, and Participants: In this case-control genetic association study, 336 patients with cCSC and 1314 unaffected controls, collected at 3 university medical centers from September 1, 2009, to May 1, 2016, underwent KASP genotyping for selected variants in NR3C1 (rs56149945, rs41423247, and rs6198) and NR3C2 (rs2070951 and rs5522)., Main Outcomes and Measures: Genetic associations of 3 NR3C1 variants and 2 NR3C2 variants with cCSC., Results: Among the 336 patients (274 men and 62 women; mean [SD] age, 52 [10] years), after correction for multiple testing, rs2070951 in the NR3C2 gene was significantly associated with cCSC (odds ratio, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.08-1.53; P = .004). Moreover, the GA haplotype of single-nucleotide polymorphisms rs2070951 and rs5522 in NR3C2 conferred risk for cCSC (odds ratio, 1.39; 95% CI, 1.15-1.68; P = .004), whereas the CA haplotype decreased risk for cCSC (odds ratio, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.60-0.87; P < .001). Three known variants in NR3C1 that alter the activity of the glucocorticoid receptor (rs56149945, rs41423247, and rs6198) were not associated with cCSC., Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, the variant rs2070951 and the GA haplotype in NR3C2 were associated with an increased risk for cCSC. Results of this genetic study support a possible role for the mineralocorticoid receptor in the pathogenesis of cCSC. Since these haplotypes have previously been associated with perceived stress, this study provides a clue to bridging clinical risk factors for cCSC to underlying genetic associations.

Purpose: The purpose of our study was to investigate the potential association between the complement factor H (CFH) (rs3753394, rs800292, rs2284664, rs1329428, and rs1065489) and GSTM1 gene polymorphisms, and central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) susceptibility in a well-defined Greek cohort., Methods: We enrolled a case-control study in a Greek population with 41 cases and 78 controls. Five milliliters of peripheral blood was collected from each participant, and DNA was extracted using the PureLink Genomic DNA kit. The CFH (rs3753394, rs800292, rs2284664, rs1329428, and rs1065489) single nucleotide polymorphisms and GSTM1 polymorphism were tested using polymerase chain reaction assays., Results: Between CSCR (n = 41) cases and controls (n = 78), the TT rs3753394, GG rs1329428, and TT rs1065489 genotypes' frequencies of the CFH gene were found to be significantly associated with risk of CSCR. The genotype frequency of the CFH rs2284664, rs800292, and of the GSTM1 gene polymorphisms was not found to be significantly associated with CSCR., Conclusion: Our results demonstrated a significant association between CSCR and single nucleotide polymorphisms in the CFH gene (rs3753394, rs1329428, and rs1065489), suggesting that disturbances in choroidal vasculature, through intercorrelation with adrenomedullin, play a significant role in CSCR pathogenesis.

Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) is a major cause of vision threat among middle-aged male individuals. Multimodal imaging led to the description of a wide range of CSCR manifestations, and highlighted the contribution of the choroid and pigment epithelium in CSCR pathogenesis. However, the exact molecular mechanisms of CSCR have remained uncertain. The aim of this review is to recapitulate the clinical understanding of CSCR, with an emphasis on the most recent findings on epidemiology, risk factors, clinical and imaging diagnosis, and treatments options. It also gives an overview of the novel mineralocorticoid pathway hypothesis, from animal data to clinical evidences of the biological efficacy of oral mineralocorticoid antagonists in acute and chronic CSCR patients. In rodents, activation of the mineralocorticoid pathway in ocular cells either by intravitreous injection of its specific ligand, aldosterone, or by over-expression of the receptor specifically in the vascular endothelium, induced ocular phenotypes carrying many features of acute CSCR. Molecular mechanisms include expression of the calcium-dependent potassium channel (KCa2.3) in the endothelium of choroidal vessels, inducing subsequent vasodilation. Inappropriate or over-activation of the mineralocorticoid receptor in ocular cells and other tissues (such as brain, vessels) could link CSCR with the known co-morbidities observed in CSCR patients, including hypertension, coronary disease and psychological stress., (Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC) has recently been associated to variants in the complement factor H gene. To further investigate the role of the complement system in cCSC, the genomic copy number variations in the complement component 4 gene (C4) were studied., Methods: C4A and C4B copy numbers were analyzed in 197 cCSC patients and 303 healthy controls by using a Taqman copy number determination assay. Copy numbers of C4A, C4B, and the total C4 load were compared between cases and controls, by using a Fisher exact test. For this analysis Bonferroni correction was performed for three tests, and P values < 0.017 were considered to be significant. A logistic regression model was constructed to calculate the odds ratios (ORs) of each of the C4B copy numbers, using two copies as a reference. For this model P values < 0.05 were considered to be significant., Results: C4B genomic copy numbers differed significantly between cCSC patients and healthy controls (P = 0.0018). Absence of C4B significantly conferred risk of cCSC (P = 0.039, OR = 2.61 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.05-6.52]), whereas three copies of C4B significantly decreased the risk of cCSC (P = 0.014, OR = 0.45 [95% CI = 0.23-0.85]). The C4A genomic copy numbers and total C4 load did not significantly differ between cases and controls., Conclusions: This study showed that copy numbers of C4B are significantly associated with cCSC. Carrying no copies of C4B significantly increases the risk of cCSC, whereas carrying three C4B copies is protective. These findings reinforce the hypothesis of a possible involvement of the complement system in the pathogenesis of cCSC.

Purpose: In this study, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at 19 loci, previously associated with age-related macular degeneration (AMD), were systematically tested for association in patients with chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC). In addition, we evaluated the effect of detailed phenotyping on these genetic associations., Design: Case-control study., Participants: We included 292 cCSC patients, 1147 AMD patients, and 1311 control individuals., Methods: We genotyped SNPs at 19 AMD-associated loci and 6 additional SNPs at the complement factor H (CFH) locus. Phenotyping of all patients was based on fundoscopy, spectral-domain optical coherence tomography, fluorescein angiography (FA), and indocyanine green angiography., Main Outcome Measures: We measured the allele frequencies of 25 AMD-associated SNPs and CFH haplotype frequencies in patients with cCSC and the effect of phenotypic subdivision of cCSC on genetic associations., Results: One SNP in ARMS2 (rs10490924) was significant after Bonferroni correction (Punadjusted=0.002; odds ratio [OR]=0.64). The SNPs at 3 other AMD loci (CFH, TNFRSF10A, ADAMTS9) showed a trend toward association with typical cCSC. Further analysis of the CFH locus identified 2 SNPs that significantly conferred increased risk for cCSC and 1 that was protective. The CFH-H3 haplotype was also found to be protective (P=0.01; OR=0.54). Using multimodal imaging, 197 patients were classified as having typical cCSC, 52 patients had unilateral abnormalities on FA that were otherwise typical of cCSC, and 43 patients had a clinical picture that could be compatible with cCSC, but with features that could also indicate other macular diseases. Significant differences of the minor allele frequencies of the tested SNPs were observed between these 3 phenotypic subgroups., Conclusions: Chronic CSC is associated with genetic variants in ARMS2 and CFH, indicating a genetic and pathophysiologic overlap between cCSC and AMD. Intriguingly, alleles in ARMS2 and CFH that confer risk of AMD may be protective for cCSC, and alleles in CFH that are protective for AMD confer risk for cCSC. Significant differences in allele frequencies were found among the phenotypic subgroups for several SNPs, illustrating the importance of correct clinical classification., (Copyright © 2015 American Academy of Ophthalmology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Thick choroid (pachychoroid) is associated with central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC), but whether pachychoroid is inherited is unknown., Methods: In a prospective observational study, first- or second-degree relatives (16 individuals) of 5 patients with CSC had refraction and visual acuity measurement, fundus examination, nonmydriatic photography, and autofluorescence photography. Eyes were graded using the following criteria: 0: normal fundus and autofluorescence photography, 1: focal retinal pigment epithelium hyperfluorescence and/or hypofluorescence and/or retinal pigment epithelial detachment, 2: CSC or diffuse retinal epitheliopathy. Choroid thickness was measured by enhanced depth imaging mode on optical coherence tomography., Results: Considering 395 μm as the threshold limit for normal subfoveal choroidal thickness, 50% of the eyes from relatives had a thick choroid. Nine eyes of Grade 0 (28%) with an isolated pachychoroid would thus have been considered normal, if choroidal thickness was not included as a screening sign predisposing for CSC., Conclusion: Our observation suggests that pachychoroid could be an inherited condition with potentially a dominant transmission mode. Its inclusion in the phenotype of CSC for genetic studies should be considered.

Context: Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) is a poorly understood disease and the choroidal circulation abnormality induced by the plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 (PAI-1) seems to be associated with the pathogenesis. There are many reports indicating that 4 G/5 G polymorphism of the PAI-1 gene is a risk factor for several diseases related to the elevated serum levels of PAI-1., Objective: To evaluate the 4 G/5 G polymorphism of the PAI-1 gene and its association with serum levels of PAI-1 in acute CSCR patients., Materials and Methods: Sixty CSCR patients and 50 healthy control patients were included. The PAI-1 4 G/5 G was genotyped using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction technique. Serum PAI-1 level was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Demographic data consisting of age, sex, body mass index (BMI) as well as genotype disturbances and serum PAI-1 levels were compared between the groups. Statistical significance for differences in the serum PAI-1 levels of each group with different genotypes was also analyzed., Results: The CSCR group consisted of 40 male (66.7%) and 20 female (33.3%) patients with a mean age of 46.7 ± 8.39 years. The control group consisted of 32 male (64%) and 18 female (36%) healthy subjects with a mean age of 45.8 ± 8.39 years. There was no statistically significant difference between the groups in terms of age, sex and BMI. In the CSCR group the genotype frequencies were 4 G/4G: 30% (n = 18), 4G/5 G: 50% (n = 30), 5 G/5G: 20% (n = 12) and in the control group genotype frequencies were 34% (n = 17), 42% (n = 21) and 24% (n = 12), respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in the distribution of genotypes among the groups (chi-squared, p = 0.70). The CSCR group had a significantly higher serum PAI-1 concentration than the control group (p = 0.001). In both groups the mean plasma PAI-1 concentration did not vary significantly among the different genotypes (p > 0.05)., Discussion and Conclusion: Although our results demonstrated that the patients with acute CSCR have higher serum PAI-1 concentrations than the controls, no significant difference was found in the genotype disturbances of the PAI-1 gene between the groups. The current study indicates that 4 G/5 G polymorphism in the promoter of the PAI-1 gene cannot be considered a risk factor for the elevated serum PAI-1 levels and consequent development of CSCR.