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AbstractA flow injection (FI) method employing the reaction between 1,10-phenanthroline (C12H8N2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in a basic medium (pH 12) with chemiluminescence (CL) detection has been developed to detect copper oxychloride pesticides in freshwater and fruit samples. The experimental conditions were optimized, and a solid phase extraction (SPE) technique modified with cupron was employed for effective phase separation during extraction. Calibration curves for copper oxychloride standard solutions demonstrated linearity over the range of 0.001 to 10 μg L−1, with the regression equation y = 506681x − 422.29 and a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.9973 (n = 9). The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were determined to be 2.62 × 10−4 μg L−1 and 7.94 × 10−4 μg L−1, respectively. Relative standard deviations (RSDs) ranged from 2.6% to 4.5%, and the method achieved an injection throughput of 120 h−1. When applied to spiked water and fruit samples, the method showed no significant differences at the 95% confidence level compared to established methods. Recoveries for copper oxychloride were found to range from 96% to 120% (RSD = 1.9 − 5.6%) in fruit samples and from 95% to 110% (RSD = 1.5 − 4.8%) in water samples. Additionally, the potential chemiluminescence reaction mechanism was investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tea plant, Camellia sinensis [L.] O. Kuntze, is a vital global agricultural commodity, yet faces challenges from fungal infections, which affects its production. To reduce the loss in the tea production, the fungal infections must be removed which is managed with fungicides, which are harmful to the environment. Leaf necrosis, which decreases tea quality and quantity, was investigated across Assam, revealing Lasiodiplodia theobromae as the causative agent. Pathogenicity tests, alongside morphological and molecular analyses, confirmed its role in leaf necrosis. Genome and gene analysis of L. theobromae showed multiple genes related to its pathogenicity. The study also assessed the impact of chemical pesticides on this pathogen. Additionally, the findings in this study highlight the significance of re-assessing management approaches in considering the fungal infection in tea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A trial was carried out in central Italy in an olive orchard of cultivar Moraiolo, highly infected by Venturia oleaginea. The aim of the investigation was to evaluate the effects of autumn and spring applications of copper oxychloride or dodine to control the disease. Non treated trees were used as the control. The effects of the fungal attacks on leaves and inflorescence development confirmed the high susceptibility of the cultivar Moraiolo to the disease. The results show that in trees heavily infected, but with most of the infected leaves at the early stage of the disease (asymptomatic phase), treatments with dodine had a curative effect, with consequent reduction in the appearance of symptomatic leaves and defoliation with respect to the control or copper-treated trees. The use of dodine against the autumnal attacks of V. oleaginea allowed most of the old leaves to be maintained until the new ones had formed, which is important for the growth processes during the early part of the growing season. Overall, the results indicate that to efficiently control the pathogen using copper compounds, treatments must start soon after the beginning of the attack and be repeated in order to maintain the infection at a low level. Dodine can be efficiently used if there is a great increase in infected leaves. The use of dodine to solve particular situations and not for normal repeated use is regulated by the fact that in some countries, Italy included, protocols for integrated pest management allow only one dodine treatment/year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combination product of two herbicides, i.e. iprovalicarb and copper oxychloride, is a new formulation. There is paucity of data on the dissipation pattern and risk assessment of this combination product in crops. To understand the dissipation behaviour/kinetics of this product, a supervised field trial was undertaken on cucumber and tomato. Method validation for a QuEChERS-based method for analysis of these pesticides from cucumber and tomato matrices reveals that all the parameters were within the acceptance range in accordance with SANTE. The limit of quantitation (LOQ) for iprovalicarb in cucumber and tomato fruits, and in soil matrices when analysed on LC–MS/MS was established at 0.01 mg kg−1. Similarly, the LOQ for copper oxychloride (as copper) on ICP-MS was established at 0.5 mg kg−1 in cucumber and tomato fruits and 5.0 mg kg−1 in soil. Dissipation of iprovalicarb was slower in tomato fruits as compared to cucumber fruits. The initial accumulation of the residues of iprovalicarb was 0.073 and 0.243 mg kg−1 in cucumber and 0.214 and 0.432 mg kg−1 in tomato fruits at standard and double dose, respectively. Similarly, copper oxychloride residues were 3.51 and 6.45 mg kg−1 in cucumber and 1.26 and 2.56 mg kg−1 in tomato fruits at standard and double dose, respectively. The residues were below LOQ in cucumber fruits, tomato fruits and soil at the time of harvest. The residues of copper oxychloride persisted till harvest time in cucumber fruits and in soil. A preharvest interval (PHI) of 3 day is recommended on safer side for the combination product of iprovalicarb + copper oxychloride. Theoretical maximum daily intake (TMDI) is less than maximum permissible intake (MPI) for iprovalicarb and copper oxychloride at both the doses from 0 day and onward. The results from the present study can be of immense importance for establishing label claims, maximum residue limits (MRLs) and risk assessment by national and international regulatory agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The thermochemical copper–chlorine (Cu–Cl) cycle is known as a promising method for producing clean hydrogen. Due to the high-temperature environment of the thermolysis reactor, there are commercialization challenges with regard to the heat exchanger design. In this study, a new design for the heat exchanger used in the thermolysis reactor of a 4-step Cu–Cl cycle is presented, aiming to achieve the required temperature distribution of 430 °C–550 °C. A design methodology is developed for the heat exchanger along with an iterative algorithm for the sizing problem. The final design of this study has decreased the T * (representative of the temperature range) by 51 % compared to the previous designs, with the improvement techniques resulting in increasing the heat exchanger effectiveness and thermal performance factor by 15 % and 138 % and decreasing average TD (representative of the temperature dispersal) by 61 %. The achieved operating temperature ranges from 431.3 °C to 539.0 °C. • New heat exchanger design to achieve an even temperature distribution in reactor. • Solar salt is used as the heat transfer fluid inside the heat exchanger. • New design methodology with an iterative sizing algorithm for the heat exchanger. • Desired operating temperature range was achieved in the reactant channel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A trial was carried out in central Italy in an olive orchard of cultivar Moraiolo, highly infected by Venturia oleaginea. The aim of the investigation was to evaluate the effects of autumn and spring applications of copper oxychloride or dodine to control the disease. Non treated trees were used as the control. The effects of the fungal attacks on leaves and inflorescence development confirmed the high susceptibility of the cultivar Moraiolo to the disease. The results show that in trees heavily infected, but with most of the infected leaves at the early stage of the disease (asymptomatic phase), treatments with dodine had a curative effect, with consequent reduction in the appearance of symptomatic leaves and defoliation with respect to the control or copper-treated trees. The use of dodine against the autumnal attacks of V. oleaginea allowed most of the old leaves to be maintained until the new ones had formed, which is important for the growth processes during the early part of the growing season. Overall, the results indicate that to efficiently control the pathogen using copper compounds, treatments must start soon after the beginning of the attack and be repeated in order to maintain the infection at a low level. Dodine can be efficiently used if there is a great increase in infected leaves. The use of dodine to solve particular situations and not for normal repeated use is regulated by the fact that in some countries, Italy included, protocols for integrated pest management allow only one dodine treatment/year.

Microbial contaminations represent an important issue for crop production, resulting in tons of losses worldwide every year. One of the highest-risk pathogens involved in these infections is Botrytis cinerea, which is responsible for the grey mold disease. In this study, a biosurfactant extracted from corn steep liquor (CSL), an agro-industrial residue from the corn-milling industry, was used in combination with copper oxychloride (Cu-Oxy), a copper-based pesticide, to evaluate their fungitoxic activity on B. cinerea cells. The results showed that the mixture of 2 g/L of Cu-Oxy with 16 g/L of the biosurfactant extract from CSL, named biosurfactant pesticide formulation (BS-P), helped in the reduction of colony growth, in the decrease of biomass production, and in the improvement of copper bioaccumulation on fungal mycelium in comparison with aqueous solutions of commercial and pure-copper-based fungicides. A factorial design was conducted to obtain the best operational conditions for enhancing the bioaccumulation of copper by B. cinerea cells in the presence of BS-P, resulting in a maximum copper uptake of 2122 µg Cu/g dry weight when using 1 g/L of Cu-Oxy combined with 8 g/L of CSL biosurfactant extract at an incubation temperature of 15 °C. It was also proved that, due to the absence of the biosurfactant extract, the amount of copper bio-adsorbed by fungal mycelium was considerably decreased and, therefore, so was its fungitoxic activity. These results suggest that the biosurfactant extract studied could be involved in eco-friendlier pesticide formulations, reducing the environmental impact of copper-based active principles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four antibiotics in combination with antibacterial chemicals and two bio-agents viz Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis, were evaluated in vitro against Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (Hasse). The results revealed that among the different antibiotics, in combination with antibacterial chemicals, streptocycline (100 ppm) + copper oxychloride (0.25%) showed higher inhibition zone (10.0 mm) as compared to kasugamycin (0.15%) (8.6 mm) and validamycin (0.2%) + copper oxychloride (0.25%) (8.8 mm). In vitro study of bio-agents by dual culture method revealed that P fluorescence showed maximum inhibition zone (97.2%) followed by B subtilis (92%). In vivo evaluation of antibiotics in combination with antibacterial chemicals and bio-agents revealed that the minimum disease intensity of 19.53 and 19.63 per cent was recorded in streptocycline (100 ppm) + copper oxychloride (0.25%) and streptocycline (100 ppm) + copper hydroxide (0.5%) with 40.41 and 39.46 per cent disease control respectively. Maximum disease intensity was recorded in control (32.50%) with 0.0 per cent disease control followed by B subtilis (5 g/l) (27.41%) and P fluorescence (5 g/l) (26.43%) with disease control of 16.81 and 19.20 per cent respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The solubility and mobility of copper (Cu) in soil is strongly influenced by the presence of dissolved organic carbon (DOC); however, the interactions between Cu and DOC are complex and not yet fully understood. In this study, Cu and DOC concentrations were measured monthly for two years in leachates from self-constructed lysimeters installed at inter- and intra-row vineyard hilltop, backslope, and footslope areas at the SUPREHILL Critical Zone Observatory, Croatia. The aim was to quantify Cu and DOC leaching from the hilltop towards the backslope and the footslope. The assumed strong relationship between Cu and DOC in the leachates was statistically analyzed and explained using chemical equilibrium software. Leachates were analyzed for pH, EC, DOC, Cu, and major ion concentrations. The highest Cu concentrations found in leachates from the intra-row footslope suggested Cu downhill transport. Although not strong, a significant positive correlation between Cu and DOC in footslope leachates confirmed the relevance of Cu complexation by DOC. Speciation confirmed that more than 99.9% of total Cu in leachates was found as a Cu-DOC complex. Data implied the role of soil water flow pathways in explaining Cu downhill transport. Critical timing for applying Cu fungicides at sloped vineyards was highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grey mould caused by Botrytis cinerea is an endemic disease in greenhouse tomato crops in the Mediterranean Basin, where the scarcity of heating systems together with the winter weather conditions makes the use of fungicides necessary. The availability of fungicides for organic tomato production is limited, and traditionally, farmers have used copper-based formulations. In the present work, in vitro tests with twelve commercial formulations resulted in cinnamon extract and potassium hydrogen carbonate (PHC) showing high efficacy in the inhibition of B. cinerea growth. Both formulations were evaluated in on-farm greenhouse trials conducted for two seasons (2019/2020 and 2020/2021) in three greenhouses located in Almería, Spain. In terms of controlling Botrytis, PHC showed efficacy results comparable to or even better than those that have been obtained for copper oxychloride. Weather conditions outside and inside the greenhouse were conducive to the onset and development of the disease. Tomato variety selection and pruning practices (flush cuttings) were the main factors that reduced the use of copper-based formulations or any other fungicide to prevent grey mould infection. Smart and integrated management of the mentioned factors could lead to the substitution of copper to control Botrytis in the crop system studied here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents anti‐viral coating formulations based on Pickering emulsion. We used a versatile strategy to produce a stable Pickering emulsion by depletion interaction between an emulsion droplet and a particle using solvent‐soluble polymers as a depletant. This interaction facilitates the adsorption of particles onto the droplet interface and stabilizes the emulsions. The coating formulation is based on water‐in‐toluene emulsions stabilized using commercial hydrophobic silica, with polycaprolactone polymer as a depletant dissolved in toluene. The structure of the emulsions and their stability were characterized by confocal microscopy, centrifugal analysis using a LUMiSizer®, and cryogenic‐scanning electron microscopy (cryo‐SEM) used to confirm the depletion phenomenon. The active materials copper oxychloride and propionic acid were incorporated into the most stable water‐in‐toluene emulsion and applied to the polycarbonate surfaces after being oven‐dried to remove the toluene while leaving the colloidosomes template with the active ingredient needed to resist viral infections. The bio‐assay of the copper oxychloride and propionic acid encapsulated samples were carried out on Nicotiana tabaccum var Xanthi plants. At a 6–7 leaf stage, Young plants of Xanthi were subjected to inoculation with the 0.01 M sodium‐phosphate pH = 7.0 containing ToBRFV from each of the coated surfaces. The inoculated plants were dusted with carborundum to enhance virus infection, and three leaves above the two lowest leaves in each plant were rubbed. Local lesions were apparent at ~4 days post‐inoculation, indicating virus count. The formulation encapsulated with copper oxychloride gave 87% protection, whereas the one with propionic acid dissolved conferred 91% protection from infestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxicity of four pesticides in ecosystem services of terrestrial arthropofauna in cocoa cultivation was evaluated. Cypermethrin (T1), carbofuran (T2), copper oxychloride (T3) and chlorpyrifos (T4) were applied in a cocoa farm in San Martín, Peru. Forty pitfall traps were placed for each treatment to capture terrestrial arthropofauna in four evaluations. It is concluded that the families that presented the greatest abundance of individuals were Formicidae, Entomobryidae and Poduridae. For the global evaluation, significant differences were found in the predators for the specific richness index, being T3 the one that presented the lowest numbers; while for the Margalef index, the lowest value was T3. For the analysis by evaluations, significant differences were found in the detritivores during the second evaluation for the number of individuals, with T4 being the lowest number. Significant differences were also found in the predators during the first evaluation in the Margalef index, with the lowest value being observed in T4. The trophic guild that allowed the most efficient evaluation of the toxicity were the predators, T1 is the most compatible pesticide with the terrestrial arthropods associated with cocoa cultivation, and the alpha diversity indices showed significant differences between the applied pesticides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microbial contaminations represent an important issue for crop production, resulting in tons of losses worldwide every year. One of the highest-risk pathogens involved in these infections is Botrytis cinerea, which is responsible for the grey mold disease. In this study, a biosurfactant extracted from corn steep liquor (CSL), an agro-industrial residue from the corn-milling industry, was used in combination with copper oxychloride (Cu-Oxy), a copper-based pesticide, to evaluate their fungitoxic activity on B. cinerea cells. The results showed that the mixture of 2 g/L of Cu-Oxy with 16 g/L of the biosurfactant extract from CSL, named biosurfactant pesticide formulation (BS-P), helped in the reduction of colony growth, in the decrease of biomass production, and in the improvement of copper bioaccumulation on fungal mycelium in comparison with aqueous solutions of commercial and pure-copper-based fungicides. A factorial design was conducted to obtain the best operational conditions for enhancing the bioaccumulation of copper by B. cinerea cells in the presence of BS-P, resulting in a maximum copper uptake of 2122 µg Cu/g dry weight when using 1 g/L of Cu-Oxy combined with 8 g/L of CSL biosurfactant extract at an incubation temperature of 15 °C. It was also proved that, due to the absence of the biosurfactant extract, the amount of copper bio-adsorbed by fungal mycelium was considerably decreased and, therefore, so was its fungitoxic activity. These results suggest that the biosurfactant extract studied could be involved in eco-friendlier pesticide formulations, reducing the environmental impact of copper-based active principles.

The solubility and mobility of copper (Cu) in soil is strongly influenced by the presence of dissolved organic carbon (DOC); however, the interactions between Cu and DOC are complex and not yet fully understood. In this study, Cu and DOC concentrations were measured monthly for two years in leachates from self-constructed lysimeters installed at inter- and intra-row vineyard hilltop, backslope, and footslope areas at the SUPREHILL Critical Zone Observatory, Croatia. The aim was to quantify Cu and DOC leaching from the hilltop towards the backslope and the footslope. The assumed strong relationship between Cu and DOC in the leachates was statistically analyzed and explained using chemical equilibrium software. Leachates were analyzed for pH, EC, DOC, Cu, and major ion concentrations. The highest Cu concentrations found in leachates from the intra-row footslope suggested Cu downhill transport. Although not strong, a significant positive correlation between Cu and DOC in footslope leachates confirmed the relevance of Cu complexation by DOC. Speciation confirmed that more than 99.9% of total Cu in leachates was found as a Cu-DOC complex. Data implied the role of soil water flow pathways in explaining Cu downhill transport. Critical timing for applying Cu fungicides at sloped vineyards was highlighted.

Grey mould caused by Botrytis cinerea is an endemic disease in greenhouse tomato crops in the Mediterranean Basin, where the scarcity of heating systems together with the winter weather conditions makes the use of fungicides necessary. The availability of fungicides for organic tomato production is limited, and traditionally, farmers have used copper-based formulations. In the present work, in vitro tests with twelve commercial formulations resulted in cinnamon extract and potassium hydrogen carbonate (PHC) showing high efficacy in the inhibition of B. cinerea growth. Both formulations were evaluated in on-farm greenhouse trials conducted for two seasons (2019/2020 and 2020/2021) in three greenhouses located in Almería, Spain. In terms of controlling Botrytis, PHC showed efficacy results comparable to or even better than those that have been obtained for copper oxychloride. Weather conditions outside and inside the greenhouse were conducive to the onset and development of the disease. Tomato variety selection and pruning practices (flush cuttings) were the main factors that reduced the use of copper-based formulations or any other fungicide to prevent grey mould infection. Smart and integrated management of the mentioned factors could lead to the substitution of copper to control Botrytis in the crop system studied here.

Abstract Background Copper oxychloride (COC) (50% of its component, copper) is copper-based fungicides. The present study aimed to investigate the possible protective effect of 80 mg/kg curcumin against the toxicity of 500, 1000, or 2000 mg COC per kilogram body weight for 90 days on the liver of a rat. Serum glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (SGPT), serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), hepatic glutathione reduced content (GSH), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were detected. The histological and ultrastructure changes of the liver tissues as well as the hepatic content of copper, iron, manganese, and zinc were also reported. Results COC-treated rats showed an increase of SGPT and SGOT, with the elevation of copper and zinc content and MDA levels with no change in GSH level. The liver showed a significant increase in the copper and iron contents. The liver of COC-treated rats showed histological and ultrastructural damage that increased with increasing the COC dose. Conversely, curcumin supplementation potentially recovered liver function enzymes in only low doses of COC, reduced MDA level, increased GSH content, and improved the hepatic lesions. These findings revealed that subchronic exposure to even low levels of COC may have potential hazards and harmful effects on the liver, and the curcumin markedly attenuated the COC biochemical, histological, and cellular alterations in liver tissues, best with the low dose of COC. Conclusions It is concluded that curcumin has a limited protective role against COC liver toxicity.

Fusarium wilt is a severe disease that plays a significant role in reducing the yield of lentil. Under favorable conditions for disease growth, the disease can cause complete crop failure and can be a crucial limiting issue for lentil cultivation in specific geographical zones. The current work focused on isolating potentialbio-agents exhibiting copper oxychloride resistance and evaluating their efficacy in seed treatment for ecologically sustainable management of Fusarium wilt of lentil. Seventy biocontrol agent isolates were isolated and tested for resistance by growing them on Potato Dextrose Agar medium (PDA) amended with copper oxychloride at the rate of 2500 ppm. Isolate-H10 and isolate-C9 showed more excellent compatibility with copper oxychloride fungicide with 69 mm and 65 mm radial growths, respectively. The isolates H10 and C9 had the highest inhibitory percentages of 84.30% and 83.94% against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis, respectively, and the highest phosphorus solubilization index (PSI). Primers (ITS 1 and ITS 4) identified these putative bioagents as Trichoderma harzianum isolate skua-tab-1 and Penicillium crysogenum strain Tab2. Sequences were submitted to the NCBI and assigned the accession numbers MK414603 and MK418066. In pot culture, these isolates also demonstrated their superiority in reducing the disease incidence and severity if seeds were treated with H10 and C9 alone or in combination with copper oxychloride fungicide. The two isolated bioagents exhibit three fundamental properties: compatibility with copper oxychloride, antagonistic activity toward the pathogen fall armyworm, and the ability to dissolve phosphorus minerals.

Copper oxychloride (Cu‐Oxy) is a widely used copper‐based fungicide. A drawback of the product is its very low water solubility (around 0.2%) which limits its fungicide efficiency due to the low‐penetrating capacity in the fungal mycelia. In this study, we have explored the use of biosurfactants (BS), surface‐active compounds obtained by microbial production, to enhance the solubility of Cu‐Oxy in agrochemical formulations. A BS extracted from corn steep liquor (CSL), a residue from the corn‐milling industry, was evaluated as an additive to increase the solubility of Cu‐Oxy in water. Different types of synthetic surfactants (Tween® 80, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)) were included for comparison. Results showed that it was possible to dissolve around 90% of Cu‐Oxy at concentration of 4 g L−1 in 20 min of contact time when the BS was added at the concentration of 20 g L−1. In contrast, the synthetic surfactants were only able to dissolve less than 0.5% of Cu‐Oxy under the same conditions. In addition, a factorial design was carried out in order to evaluate the influence of BS concentration, Cu‐Oxy concentration and contact time, on the solubilization of Cu‐Oxy. Maximum percentage of solubilization (96.5%) was achieved at concentrations of 16.1 g L−1 of BS, 2 g L−1 of Cu‐Oxy, and 20 min of contact time. These results allowed to conclude that BS extracted from CSL could be included in agrochemical formulations as solubilizing agents improving the stability of hydrophobic active principles and reducing the concentration needed of chemical pesticides, giving eco‐friendlier formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research study investigated the effect of 80 mg/kg b.wt./day curcumin (cur) against 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg copper oxychloride (COC) for 90 days induced testicular damage using histological, ultrastructural, and biochemical techniques. Histological and cellular abnormalities have been noted in seminiferous tubules of COC-treated group and treated group with Cur- and COC-treated group. The biochemical result showed that serum testosterone was significantly decreased in COC-treated rats and Cur COC-treated rats compared with the control groups. Testes copper content and malondialdehyde was increased, whereas the testes total antioxidant, manganese, ferrous, and zinc levels were decreased (p ≥ 0.05) compared to the control groups. In conclusion, the present work reported that the treatment of rats with 80 mg/kg body weight curcumin prior to treatment with COC did not mitigate the deleterious effects of COC and manifested no signs of protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The target of this animal study was to clarify the influence of Copper oxychloride (COC) (at concentrations of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg b.wt.) administration for ninety days on the brain tissues to evaluate its possible neurotoxicity. Methods Thirty male albino rats were divided up into control and four experimental groups. Group-II (rats were fed corn oil daily through oral gavage) and Group-III-A, Group-III-B, Group-III-C (rats were fed orally with COC in a dosage of 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg b.wt., respectively, daily for ninety days. Various biochemical analyses and histopathological assessment of rat forebrain were investigated. Results the brains of the treated rats at the three chosen doses of COC recorded a significant (p≤ 0.05) elevation of lipid peroxidation. The measured brain lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) revealed non significant (p ≥ 0.05) differences among the studied groups. Besides, there was a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the brain manganese concentration (Mn) of COC treated rats. In addition, there were significant (p< 0.05) increase in zinc (Zn) brain concentration and non significant change in copper (Cu) brain concentration among groups. The brain, cerebrum showed marked histopathological damage than cerebellum. The cerebral cortex of COC treated animals exhibited severe degenerative changes. Conclusion The present results concluded that consumption of food contaminated even with modest amount of COC can enter the brain barrier resulted in neurotoxicity in the brain of albino rats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphological alterations in Eisenia fetida coelomocytes are recommended biomarkers for soil contamination surveys. Copper oxychloride is a widely used agrochemical agent that causes excessive amounts of Cu accumulation in soils. The present study is a light and electron microscopic investigation of the morphological alterations in coelomocytes of E. fetida exposed to copper oxychloride. Exposure concentration was 350 mg/kg of artificial soil and exposure duration was 7 or 14 days. Colelomocytes were extrused into an ethanol and guaicol glyceryl (GGE) containing modified Hanks’ balanced solution (M-HBSS-GGE) by a simple low vacuum holding device and processed for light and scanning electron microscopy. Lipid peroxidation (LP) in the earthworms was also measured to evaluate oxidative stress (OS). Swelling and vesicular deformation were the early signs of toxicity in eleocytes after 7 days. After 14 days, complete loss of vesicles and spongy surface were observed in eleocytes. Granulocytes showed more dramatical changes. Nucleus fragmentation and membrane rupture were observed after 14 days. Increased LP in the earthworms was accompanying these changes. As a result, along with biochemical markers such as LP, light and scanning electron microscopic changes in E.fetida eleocytes and granulocytes can be considered as valuable biomarkers of copper oxychloride toxicity. Evaluation of those markers in the future studies can constitute an important early warning in terms of soil accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil microorganisms exhibit varying levels of metal tolerance across a diverse range of environmental conditions. The use of metal-based fungicides such as mancozeb and copper oxychloride could potentially result in increased levels of manganese, zinc and copper which may adversely affect soil mesofauna. Under standardized earthworm bioassay conditions (temperature, pH, soil type and water content), we investigated the effect of Bacillus cereus on mancozeb and copper oxychloride ecotoxicity towards Eisenia andrei. A metal-tolerant Bacillus cereus strain previously isolated from a gold mining site was introduced into fungicide spiked soils. Earthworms were exposed to bacterial inoculated and non-inoculated substrates of mancozeb (8, 44, 800 and 1250 mg kg−1) and copper oxychloride (200, 450, 675 and 1000 mg kg−1). Experimental trials assessed avoidance-behavior, growth and reproduction utilizing standardized protocols (ISO and OECD). In the avoidance-behavior, E. andrei showed significant (p< 0.05) preference for inoculated substrates. Further, significant (p< 0.05) increases in biomass, survival, cocoons, juveniles and lower soil and tissue Mn, Cu and Zn contents were recorded at 8 and 44 mg kg−1 mancozeb and copper oxychloride 200 and 450 mg kg−1 inoculated soils compared to non-inoculated. However, at 800 and 1250 mg kg−1 mancozeb and 675 and 1000 mg kg−1 copper oxychloride concentrations, reproductive success in both inoculated and non-inoculated treatments was negatively (p< 0.05) affected. In conclusion, Bacillus cereus decreased the ecotoxicity of metal-based fungicides towards Eisenia andrei at 8 and 44 mg kg−1 mancozeb and 200 and 450 mg kg−1 copper oxychloride concentrations. The outcome observed with the inoculated substrates at elevated fungicides concentrations maybe as a result of the environmental conditions (pH and temperature). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Two field trials in integrated cultivation (2014 and 2016) were carried out with the aim to evaluate the efficacy and the persistence of copper oxychloride to control downy mildew of grapevine in mixture with a new natural adjuvant (PSS®) derived from locust bean (Ceratonia siliqua L.) gum. Copper amount applied in vineyards is the subject of interest for its use in organic farming due to the concern about its ecotoxicological profile in the soil that need to modify its use in rates, strategy and total amount per season. Copper oxychloride was applied every 7 and 14 days mixed or not with locust bean gum. Locust bean gum was also applied alone. To evaluate the distribution of copper on grapevine leaves, observations by scanning electron microscope were made. Locust bean gum alone did not influence the development of disease, while significantly increased efficacy and persistence of copper oxychloride both on leaves and bunches. On bunches, at 14 days interval, efficacy on incidence of copper oxychloride plus locust bean gum was about 60% while efficacy on severity was 60.1 and 65.6% for the year 2014 and 2016, respectively. With no locust bean gum, at the same interval, efficacy was significantly lower. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that copper fungicide particles when mixed with locust bean gum were still uniformly distributed on leaves after 14 days from application, but if applied alone already after 7 days became scattered with a lower concentration. To our knowledge, it is the first time that galactomannans-derived compounds have been used as adjuvant in pesticides. The use of locust bean gum reduced the annual amount of copper in integrated cultivation from 7.9 kg ha−1 applying copper oxychloride every 7 days to 4.5 kg ha−1 when applied every 14 days mixed with the new locust bean gum sticker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a serious postharvest pathogen of avocado fruits worldwide. Kenya lacks any registered fungicides for the management of the disease. Nevertheless, farmers commonly use commercially available fungicides such as Bayleton 25WP (Triadimefon 250 g/Kg), Milraz 76WP (Propineb 70% and Cymoxanil 6%), and Copper oxychloride 500WP for disease management. The efficacy of these fungicides against C. gloeosporioides is not known. The purpose of this study was therefore to test the inhibitory effect of these fungicides against 46 C. gloeosporioides isolates from avocado fruits collected from varieties grown at different agroecological zones in Murang’a County, a popular avocado-growing region in Kenya. Mycelial growth rate and sporulation for each isolate were measured in vitro on PDA plates amended with different concentrations of the fungicides. Plates were arranged in a completely randomized design with three replications per treatment. All fungicides were effective in vitro but there were significant differences in sensitivity among isolates. Bayleton had the highest mycelial inhibition followed by Milraz, while copper oxychloride had the lowest mycelial inhibition rates, ranging from 81% to 88%. However, copper oxychloride was more effective in inhibiting sporulation. The inhibitory effect of each fungicide was concentration-dependent, where twice the recommended concentration had the highest inhibitory effect, followed by the recommended concentration. Our results show that the fungicides used by farmers against C. gloeosporioides, the causal agent for anthracnose, are effective. We, however, recommend further field tests in different avocado-growing areas so as to validate their efficacy against various isolates and under different environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During 2017, at the RDIFG Vidra, was organized a bifactorial experience, placed on the subdivision parcels method, with 12 variants and 4 repetitions, using Pontica 102 tomato variety. During the growing period on tomatoes have been identified following pathogens on foliage: Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria, Alternaria porri f. sp. solani, Fulvia fulva and Phytophthora infestans. Their attack has influenced production in terms of quantity and quality. In order to reduce yield losses, different treatment variants were tested using the following fungicide-bactericids: copper hydroxide 50% (Copper Max 50 WP 0.25%), chlorothalonil 500 g/l (Bravo 500 SC 0.2%), azoxystrobin 200 g/l - difenoconazole 125 g/l (Ortiva Top 0.1%), iprovalicarb 8.4% + Cu of oxychloride 40% (Melody Compact 49 WG 0.2%), difenoconazole 250 g/l (Score 250 SC 0.05%), copper hydroxide with 50% metallic Cu (Champ 77 WG 0.25%), metiram 80% (Polygram DF 0.2%), dimethomorph 9% + mancozeb 60% (Acrobat MZ 69 WG 0.2%), mefenoxam 4% + macozeb 64% (Ridomil Gold MZ 68 WG 0.25%), mancozeb 80% (Dithane M 45 WP 0.2%). Foliar fertilizers have also been used Crop Max 0.3%, Agroleaf Power Total (20.20.20) 0.5% and Agroleaf Power HK (15.10.31) 0.5%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the field, eggplants are frequently attacked by Alternaria porri f. sp. solani, Botrytis cinerea and Phytophthora parasitica pathogens, which diminishes yield in quantitative terms and depreciates qualitatively. For the control of these pathogens three variants of fungicide treatments with different active ingredients were tested: chlorotalonil 500 g/l, pyraclostrobin 5% + metiram 55%, metiram 80%, iprovalicarb 8.4% + Cu oxychloride 40.6%, azoxystrobin 200 g/l + diphenoconazole 125 g/l. The best efficacy was obtained at variant 2 with the following schedule of treatments: treatment 1 - pyraclostrobin 5% + metiram 55% - 0.2%; treatment 2 - iprovalicarb 8.4% + Cu oxychloride 40.6% - 0.2%; treatment 3 - pyraclostrobin 5% + metiram 55% - 0.2%; treatment 4 - iprovalicarb 8.4% + Cu oxychloride 40.6% - 0.2%; treatment 5 - azoxystrobin 200 g/l + diphenoconazole 125 g/l - 0.1%; treatment 6 - pyraclostrobin 5% + metiram 55% - 0.2%. In this variant, the average efficacy was 85.5% and the yield 39.7 t/ha (123.17%) compared to 31.8 t/ha in the untreated control variant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new method was developed for the determination of copper oxychloride residue in different water matrix using high performance liquid chromatography with pre-column derivatization. The sample was acidified and then pretreated with pre-column derivatization method using sodium diethyldithiocarbamate before injection. The chromatographic separation was performed on a C18 reversed phase column,using methanol and water as the mobile phase and quantified by UV-vis spectroscopy at the wavelength of 305 nm. The results showed that the calibration curve was linear within the range of 0.06-2 mg/L. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) of this method were 0.02 mg/L and 0.06 mg/L, respectively. The average recoveries in three different water matrix at three spiked concentration levels of 0.06, 0.2 and 1 mg/L ranged from 85% to 108% with the relative standard deviations (RSD) from 2.2% to 14%. The substances in all different water matrix did not appear to interfere with the determination. This method is simple, accurate and reliable, which is suitable for the rapid determination of copper oxychloride in water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, container stock has become the preferred plant material to regenerate longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) forests in the southeastern United States. We evaluated the effects of container nursery treatments on early and long-term field performance in central Louisiana. Seedlings were grown in four cavity volumes (60−336 mL) with or without copper oxychloride root pruning (Cu or no-Cu) and fertilized at three nitrogen (N) rates. Across treatments, 91% of the seedlings emerged from the grass stage by the second field season, and 88% of the seedlings survived eight years after outplanting (Year 8). Seedlings grown in the largest cavities had greater total heights and stem diameters than those cultured in the 60- and 95-mL cavities through Year 8. Seedlings receiving the least amount of N in the nursery were consistently smaller in stature through Year 8 than seedlings receiving more N. Field growth was unaffected by copper root pruning through Year 8. Foliar mineral nutrient concentrations and seedling nutrient contents of Year 2 seedlings did not respond to nursery treatments. Independent of nursery treatments, seedlings excavated in Year 2 had at least 60% of their first-order lateral roots (FOLRs) originating from the top 4.0 cm of the taproots. The Cu-root-pruned seedlings had twofold the percentage of FOLRs egressed from the top 8.0 cm of the root plug when compared with the no-Cu seedlings. Moreover, the Cu root pruning treatment decreased the percentage of root plug biomass allocated to FOLRs, total within root plug FOLR lengths, and FOLR deformity index. The effects of increasing cavity volume or N rate on the root plug FOLR variables were opposite those of the Cu root pruning treatment. Our results suggest that a tradeoff may exist between seedling stature and a more natural FOLR morphology in outplanted container longleaf pine seedlings.

The unconventional Heavy Metal Oxide Glasses (HMOG) are characterized by a low phonon energy, large infrared range transmission, high refractive index and nonlinear optical properties. Ternary glasses have been synthesized and studied in the Sb 2 O 3 – MoO 3 -ZnCl 2 system. Further, the glass formation compositional limits are reported and some glass samples with the formula: (90-x)Sb 2 O 3 -xMoO 3 –10 ZnCl 2 (10 ≤ x ≤ 50, mole%) were elaborated. Thermal properties have been measured and indicating that the glass transition temperature decreases with increasing proportions of molybdenum oxide. The evolution of density, microhardness and elastic modulus has been studied as functions of parameter x and Raman spectra measurements have been shown the partial conversion of MoO 6 octahedral units into MoO 4 tetrahedral. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aspergilus flavus is the most common seed born fungus that deteriorates the seed quality and minimizes the export value of the rice all over the world. Fungicides are the most successful and commonly used way to manage any fungi but more use of fungicides have resulted evolution in the seed born fungi so efforts are required off and on to stay ahead of the fungal races. Keeping in view, the present research work was conducted to evaluate different fungicides against A. flavus and their comparative efficacy upon the infected rice seeds. Experiment was laid out in completely randomize design with varying concentrations of fungicides (20, 40, 60 and 80 ppm) under laboratory conditions. Statistical results shown significant reduction in mycelial growth and improved the seed germination as well. The results were significantly better when the fungicides were used at 80 ppm, as compared to low concentrations. Regarding mycelial growth, Kumulus-DF and Cabrio-Top were comparative to each other, followed by Trimiltox-Forte, Cordate and Copper oxychloride, while for the other attribute of infected grain germination Kumulus-DF proven better in comparison with Trimiltox-forte and Cabrio-Top, followed by Cordate and Copper oxychloride. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to measure the impact of the mechanized chlorpyrifos, copper oxychloride and myclobutanil application in a small peach orchard, on humans (operators, bystanders and residents) and on the productive soil. The mean Potential Dermal Exposure (PDE) of the workers (tractor drivers) was 30.8 mL·h − 1 ± 16.4 mL·h − 1 , with no specific pesticide distribution on the laborers body. Although the Margin of Safety (MOS) factor for the application stage were above 1 (safe condition) for myclobutanil and cooper oxycloride it was below 1 for chlorpyrifos. The mix and load stage remained as the riskier operation. Pesticide found on the orchard soil ranged from 5.5% to 14.8% of the total chlorpyrifos, copper oxychloride and myclobutanil applied. Pesticide drift was experimentally measured, finding values in the range of 2.4% to 11.2% of the total pesticide applied. Using experimental drift values, bystander (for one application), resident (for 20 applications) and earthworm (for one application) risk indicators (RIs) were calculated for the chlorpyrifos plus copper oxychloride and for myclobutanil treatments for different distances to the orchard border. Earthworm RI was correlated with experimental Eisenia andrei ecotoxicological assays (enzymatic activities: cholinesterases, carboxylesterases and glutathione S-transferases; behavioral: avoidance and bait-lamina tests) with good correlation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tomato leaves showing severe leaf spot symptoms have been observed and sampled in the central west and southwest Taiwan during 2015 and 2016. The symptoms were similar to those of bacterial leaf spot/late blight diseases, but only Stemphylium-like fungi were consistently isolated from the diseased tomato. Upon spray inoculation of tomato, Stemphylium-like isolates caused leaf spot symptoms identical to those of naturally infected plants, and the pathogenic isolates were successfully re-isolated from inoculated leaves. The tomato-pathogenic isolates were identified as S. lycopersici based on morphological characterization and molecular identification. S. lycopersici has been previously reported to cause gray leaf spot of tomato in the temperate regions, but the majority of S. lycopersici-caused lesions were black/dark brown rather than gray in our surveillance. Accordingly, it is suggested that S. lycopersici-caused disease of tomato is named Stemphylium leaf spot of tomato more appropriately than tomato gray leaf spot. Moreover, S. lycopersici-caused leaf spot disease on tomato has been distributed in major tomato production regions in Taiwan. The information provided by our study will be important for future breeding of tomato cultivars, especially for tomato producers in Taiwan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protection against downy mildew in organic viticulture is exclusively based on the use of copper products but these cause environmental concerns. The aim of this work was to assess a control strategy under Mediterranean climatic conditions with the goal of reducing the quantities of copper allowed under organic viticulture. The control strategy was based on the use of copper oxychloride with varying doses and intervals between their applications. The efficiency of the control was assessed based on the incidence and severity of the disease in grape leaves and bunches. The products used ensured effective control under moderate disease pressure. It was found that during seasons with a low pressure of downy mildew attack, it is possible to contain the fungus respecting the ceiling prescribed by the organic regulations. Otherwise, when the pressure of the fungus is high, in the case of humid and rainy seasons, it is not possible to respect the limit. Organic growers can minimize the use of copper in organic viticulture by using copper-alternatives when downy mildew infection is intermediate or low. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fusarium nivale (Fr.) Ces. a recently reported fungus of mango malformation disease (MMD)is a predominant and virulent fungus in mango orchards of Sindh, Pakistan. In the current study, in vitro and in vivo attempts were made with commercial fungicides to reduce the severity of F. nivale. Mycelial growth of F. nivale was significantly inhibited at low and high doses of Thiophanate methyl and Fosetyl- Aluminium. Metalaxyl+Mancozeb and Mancozeb also reduced growth of fungus at their high doses (6.830 and 11.900mm), respectively, as compared to Copper oxychloride (18.083 mm) and control (40.750 mm). Thiophanate methyl and Fosetyl- Aluminium significantly reduced infection in Desi, Almas and Dusheri to 16.60 and 19.00%; 17.60 and 19.80%; and 20.60 and 22.00% after first spray, with decreased percent of malformation 72.33 and 68.33%; 71.11 and 67.54%; and 67.81 and 65.62% and over untreated control. The second spray of Thiophanate methyl and Fosetyl- Aluminium fungicides completely inhibited infection of F. nivale, and 100.0% reduction in malformation disease in Desi, Almas, and Dusheri as compared to Metalaxyl+Mancozeb (78.73, 73.84, 72.64%) and Mancozeb (73.65, 73.69, 69.41%), Copper oxychloride and in control. The application of Thiophanate methyl and Fosetyl- Aluminium would be useful in integrated management of MMD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fungicidal residues of certain copper fungicides, i.e. copper oxychloride, copper hydroxide and Copper salts of fatty and rosin acids used against downy mildew in lettuce were studied. Data showed the occurrence of Cu residues in the plant, at different values according to the forms and rates used. Copper compounds residues were digested from lettuce plants samples then the residues were determined by microwave plasma atomic emission spectrometry. Results indicated that the pre harvest interval (PHI) for lettuce plants were 1, 3 and 4 days for copper salts, copper hydroxide and copper oxychloride, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]