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Action video game players (AVGPs) outperform nonvideo game players (NVGPs) on a wide variety of attentional tasks, mediating benefits to perceptual and cognitive decision processes. A key issue in the literature is the extent to which such benefits transfer beyond cognition. Using steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP) as a neural measure of attentional resource allocation, we investigated whether the attentional benefit of AVGPs generalizes to the processing of rapidly presented facial emotions. AVGPs (n = 36) and NVGPs (n = 32) performed a novel, attention-demanding emotion discrimination task, requiring the identification of a target emotion in one of two laterally presented streams of emotional faces. The emotional faces flickered at either 2.0 Hz or 2.5 Hz. AVGPs outperformed NVGPs at detecting the target emotions regardless of the type of emotion. Correspondingly, attentional modulation of the SSVEP at parieto-occipital recording sites was larger in AVGPs compared with NVGPs. This difference appeared to be driven by a larger response to attended information, as opposed to a reduced response to irrelevant distractor information. Exploratory analyses confirmed that this novel paradigm elicited the expected pattern of event-related potentials associated with target detection and error processing. These components did not, however, differ between groups. Overall, the results indicate enhanced discrimination of facial emotions in AVGPs arising from enhanced attentional processing of emotional information. This presents evidence for the attentional advantage of AVGPs to extend beyond perceptual and cognitive processes.

A negative link between media multitasking and sustained attention has been proposed; yet, whether such a link exists remains hotly debated as previous studies found mixed effects. The present study seeks to evaluate the size of this effect taking into account possible variations due to how media multitasking is measured, how sustained attention is assessed, and the origin of the samples. Using an established and a novel, shortened measure for media multitasking, 924 participants were recruited through three different platforms (MTurk, Prolific and university students). In addition to questionnaire- and task-based assessments for sustained attention, impulsivity and sensation seeking were also assessed to further qualify behavioral problems associated with media multitasking. The findings establish a negative link between media multitasking and sustained attention of a medium effect size, whether questionnaires (r =.20) or a task-based measure (r =.21) are used. Importantly, the findings support the notion that previous differences across studies can be at least partly attributed to the choice of media multitasking measure as well as differences across samples.

This study investigates the relationship between video game playing time and Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD), using self-reported and actual game play data from League of Legends players. Two new metrics were derived documenting players' tendencies to come back quickly to play a new game and the sensitivity of this come-back-fast behavior to the reward of winning. Surprisingly, none of nine media consumption variables, whether logged or self-reported, were related to IGD. Rather, mental health factors, such as anxiety and depression, were the best predictors of IGD. In addition, personality factors, such as conscientiousness and need-for-cognition appeared as protective. In all, these results indicate that policies and procedures aimed solely at limiting screen time are unlikely to be effective at reducing IGD prevalence or symptoms, and rather call for mental health factors to be considered to safeguard individuals' well-being.

Drift Diffusion Models have enabled strong advances in our understanding of decision-making, yet their application to examining learning has not been common. Using data from participants completing a dynamic random dot-motion direction discrimination task across four days, we characterized alterations in two components of perceptual decision-making (drift rate and response boundary). Continuous-time learning DDMs were applied to characterize trajectories of performance change, with different models allowing for varying dynamics. The best-fitting model included drift rate changing as a continuous, exponential function of cumulative trial number. In contrast, response boundary changed within each daily session, but in an independent manner across daily sessions. Our results highlight two different processes underlying the pattern of behavior observed across the entire learning trajectory, one involving a continuous tuning of perceptual sensitivity, and another more variable process describing participants’ threshold of when enough evidence is present to act.

Over the past several decades, empirical and theoretical work has focused on the question of whether it is possible to purposefully improve cognitive functioning through behavioral interventions. Accordingly, a field is emerging around cognitive training, be it through executive function training, video game play, music training, aerobic exercise, or mindfulness meditation. One concern that has been raised regarding the results of this field centers on the potential impact of participants' expectations. Suggestions have been raised that participants may, at least in some cases, show improvements in performance because they expect to improve, rather than because of any mechanisms inherent in the behavioral interventions per se. The present paper discusses the latest views on expectations and the new methodological challenges they raise when considering the effectiveness of behavioral interventions on human behavior, and in particular cognition.

Supplemental digital content is available in the text., Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate the indirect effects of cardiorespiratory fitness on scholastic performance through executive functions. More precisely, we examined the contribution of the different domains of executive functions, and whether this relationship was specific to certain school topics. Methods Children 8–12 yr old completed nine cognitive tests and the multistage fitness test. Structural equation modeling techniques were used to analyze the role of different domains of executive functions (inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and a common factor to all tasks) in the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and school grades in three domains: (i) mathematics; (ii) grammar, spelling, and vocabulary; and (iii) text comprehension and expression. Covariate analyses included age and socioeconomic status. Results The results of this study showed that an indirect effect of the various domains of executive functions explained, in part, the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and (i) mathematics (β = 0.12, SE = 0.03, P < 0.001), and between cardiorespiratory fitness and (ii) grammar, spelling, and vocabulary (β = 0.12, SE = 0.03, P < 0.001). No relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and (iii) text comprehension and expression was observed. Although executive functions correlated with school grades, cognitive flexibility drove the indirect effect when all executive function domains were simultaneously taken into account. Conclusions These results show the role that executive functions play in understanding the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and scholastic performance. Importantly, not all executive function domains contributed equally because cognitive flexibility played a leading role in this wide age range. Furthermore, the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and scholastic performance was strongest for mathematics and for low-level language topics but nonsignificant for higher-level language topics, providing a more modulated view of the effect of cardiorespiratory fitness on language.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that regularly playing action video games (AVGPs) is associated with increased cognitive performance. Individuals who play role-playing video games (RPGs) have usually been excluded from these studies. This is because RPGs traditionally contained no action components and were thus not expected to influence cognitive performance. However, modern RPGs increasingly include numerous action-like components. We therefore examined whether current RPG players (RPGPs) perform similar to action video game players (AVGPs) or nonvideo game players (NVGPs) on two cognitive tasks. Self-identified AVGPs (N = 76), NVGPs (N = 77), and RPGPs (N = 23) completed two online cognitive tasks: A useful field of view (UFOV) task and a multiple-object tracking task (MOT). The UFOV task measures the ability to deploy visuospatial attention over a large field of view while dividing one's attention between a central and a peripheral task. The MOT task measures the ability to use attentional control to dynamically refresh information in working memory. RPGPs performed similar to AVGPs and better than NVGPs on both tasks. However, patterns of covariation (e.g., gender and age) presented obstacles to interpretation in some cases. Our study is the first to demonstrate that RPGPs show similar cognitive performance to AVGPs. These findings suggest that regularly playing modern RPGs may enhance visuospatial abilities. However, because the current study was purely cross-sectional, intervention studies will be needed to assess causation. We discuss the implications of this finding, as well as considerations for how gamers are classified going forward. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)

A growing body of literature has investigated the effects of playing video games on brain function and behavior. One key takeaway from this literature has been that not all entertainment video games are created equal with respect to their effects on cognitive functioning. The majority of the research to date has contrasted the cognitive impact of playing first- or third-person shooter games (together dubbed "action video games") against the effects of playing other game types. Indeed, when the research began in the late 1990s, action video games placed a load upon the perceptual, attentional, and cognitive systems in a manner not seen in other video games. However, the video game industry has shifted dramatically over the intervening years. In particular, first- and third-person shooter games are no longer unique in the extent to which they load upon cognitive abilities. Instead, a host of other game genres appear to place similar degrees of load upon these systems. This state of affairs calls for a paradigm shift in the way that the cognitive neuroscience field examines the impact of video game play on cognitive skills and their neural mediators-a shift that is only just now slowly occurring.

Enhanced behavioral interventions are gaining increasing interest as innovative treatment strategies for major depressive disorder (MDD). In this study protocol, we propose to examine the synergistic effects of a self-administered home-treatment, encompassing transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) along with a video game based training of attentional control. The study is designed as a two-arm, double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled multi-center trial (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04953208). At three study sites (Israel, Latvia, and Germany), 114 patients with a primary diagnosis of MDD undergo 6 weeks of intervention (30 × 30 min sessions). Patients assigned to the intervention group receive active tDCS (anode F3 and cathode F4; 2 mA intensity) and an action-like video game, while those assigned to the control group receive sham tDCS along with a control video game. An electrode-positioning algorithm is used to standardize tDCS electrode positioning. Participants perform their designated treatment at the clinical center (sessions 1–5) and continue treatment at home under remote supervision (sessions 6–30). The endpoints are feasibility (primary) and safety, treatment efficacy (secondary, i.e., change of Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) scores at week six from baseline, clinical response and remission, measures of social, occupational, and psychological functioning, quality of life, and cognitive control (tertiary). Demonstrating the feasibility, safety, and efficacy of this novel combined intervention could expand the range of available treatments for MDD to neuromodulation enhanced interventions providing cost-effective, easily accessible, and low-risk treatment options.ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04953208.

The possibility of leveraging video games for enhancing behavior and brain function has led to an emerging new field situated at the crossroads of cognitive neuroscience, health science, educational interventions, and game design. Here we review the impact of video game play, in particular action video game play, on attentional control. We also examine the underlying neural bases of these effects and the game design features hypothesized to drive the plastic changes. We argue that not all games have the same impact, with both differences in the characteristics of the games themselves as well as individual differences in player style determining the final outcome. These facts, mixed with changes in the game industry, (e.g., greater mixing of genre characteristics; greater freedom of player experience) calls for a paradigm shift relative to the approach taken in the field to-date, including iteratively alternating between targeted game design and efficacy evaluation.

Over the past several decades, technological advancements in entertain- ment systems have given rise to a multibillion-dollar video gaming industry. Today, video games are one of the most ubiquitous forms of entertainment around the world, with an estimated 2.7 billion video game players world- wide (Statista, 2020). In the United States, 65% of adults play video games, spending an average of 4.8 hours per week playing computer, console, or mobile video games (Entertainment Software Association, 2019). Given the large amount of time individuals throughout the population spend playing video games, scientists have sought to examine the effects of video game exposure on a host of human behaviors and abilities. Such inquiries have spanned the entirety of psychological sciences, from educational psychology (e.g., Clark et al., 2016; Mayo, 2009), to clinical psychology (e.g., Biagianti & Vinogradov, 2013; Eichenbaum et al., 2015), to social psychology (Gentile et al., 2009; Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2011), to the focus of this chapter, cognitive psychology. Within cognitive psychology, the majority of work to date has examined the impact of video game play in domains such as execu- tive functions (e.g., inhibition, cognitive control, selective attention), cogni- tive flexibility (e.g., multitasking, task switching), and perceptual capabilities (e.g., peripheral vision, multisensory integration; Bavelier et al., 2018, 2012). Yet, a growing body of research has focused on what might be considered “higher level cognition,” in particular, intelligence, problem solving, and cre- ativity. These latter three domains will be the focus of this chapter.

Humans extract statistical regularities over time by forming internal representations of the transition probabilities between states. Studies on sequence prediction learning typically focus on how experiencing a particular sequence allows the underlying generative model to be learned. Here we ask what role generative models play when participants experience and learn to predict different sequences from a common generative family. Our novel multi-task prediction paradigm requires participants to complete four sequence learning tasks, each task being a different instantiation of a common generative family. This multi-task environment allows participants to demonstrate two types of learning: (i) within-task learning (i.e., finding the solution to each of the tasks), and (ii) across-task learning (i.e., learning from one task that changes how they approach future tasks). Specifically, to examine across-task learning, we focus on the first four trials of each sequence learning task, as choices during these trials must be driven by participants’ background knowledge and not by their in-task learning experience. We show not only that participants arrive with a structured prior, but also that as participants proceed from one task to the next, their prior increasingly resembles the true generative family. Then, to analyse the within-task learning, we model behaviour within each task as arising from a mixture-of-generative-models learning strategy, whereby participants have a pool of candidate explanatory models (mostly within the true generative family) that they continuously update and arbitrate against each other to best explain the stimulus sequence. This framework predicts specific structured errors from participants, as well as a gating mechanism for learning, both of which are observed in the data.

This chapter reviews the behavioral and neuroimaging scientific literature on the cognitive consequences of playing various genres of video games. The available research highlights that not all video games have similar cognitive impact; action video games as defined by first- and third-person shooter games have been associated with greater cognitive enhancement, especially when it comes to top-down attention, than puzzle or life-simulation games. This state of affairs suggests specific game mechanics need to be embodied in a video game for it to enhance cognition. These hypothesized game mechanics are reviewed; yet, the authors note that the advent of more complex, hybrid, video games poses new research challenges and call for a more systematic assessment of how specific video game mechanics relate to cognitive enhancement.

Offering reward during encoding typically leads to better memory [Adcock, R. A., Thangavel, A., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S.,Knutson, B., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. Reward-motivated learning: Mesolimbic activation precedes memory formation. Neuron, 50, 507–517, 2006]. Whether such memory benefit persists when tested in a different task context remains, however, largely understudied [Wimmer, G. E., & Buechel, C. Reactivation of reward-related patterns from single past episodes supports memory-based decision making. Journal of Neuroscience, 36, 2868–2880, 2016]. Here, we ask whether reward at encoding leads to a generalized advantage across learning episodes, a question of high importance for any everyday life applications, from education to patient rehabilitation. Although we confirmed that offering monetary reward increased responses in the ventral striatum and pleasantness judgments for pictures used as stimuli, this immediate beneficial effect of reward did not carry over to a subsequent and different picture–location association memory task during which no reward was delivered. If anything, a trend for impaired memory accuracy was observed for the initially high-rewarded pictures as compared to low-rewarded ones. In line with this trend in behavioral performance, fMRI activity in reward (i.e., ventral striatum) and in memory (i.e., hippocampus) circuits was reduced during the encoding of new associations using previously highly rewarded pictures (compared to low-reward pictures). These neural effects extended to new pictures from same, previously highly rewarded semantic category. Twenty-four hours later, delayed recall of associations involving originally highly rewarded items was accompanied by decreased functional connectivity between the hippocampus and two brain regions implicated in value-based learning, the ventral striatum and the ventromedial PFC. We conclude that acquired reward value elicits a downward value-adjustment signal in the human reward circuit when reactivated in a novel nonrewarded context, with a parallel disengagement of memory–reward (hippocampal–striatal) networks, likely to undermine new associative learning. Although reward is known to promote learning, here we show how it may subsequently hinder hippocampal and striatal responses during new associative memory formation.

Contradictory statements are often heard about the effects of digital technology use on health or cognition, posing practical dilemmas to parents, educators, health professionals and policy makers. We argue that one source of inconsistencies lies in an oversimplistic concept of "screen time", which fails to capture the complexity of digital media practices. For example, research shows that action video game play and media “multitasking,” two activities that count as screen time, have opposite effects on attention. We urge adoption of standardised definitions and propose guiding principles to achieve greater granularity, accuracy and consistency in conceptualising and addressing media effects.

This chapter examines the cognitive and brain effects of playing a specific game genre—namely action video games. Video games are now played extensively around the world. Indeed, defying the common stereotype of video games being “just for kids” or “just for boys”, video games are played by an exceptionally broad swath of the population. When discussing the impact that video games have on the brain and cognition, it is important to recognize that the label “video games” encompasses an incredibly wide variety of experiences. To investigate the effects of action video game play on behavior, one—often initial—approach has consisted in utilizing a cross-sectional design. Demonstrating a causal relation requires running an intervention or training study. Intervention studies involve recruiting participants who have at most limited video game experience. The large difference in amount of action game experience is likely to at least partially explain the lower effect sizes in intervention as compared to cross-sectional studies.

In modern societies, training reading skills is fundamental since poor-reading children are at high risk of struggling both at school and in life. Reading relies not only on oral language abilities but also on several executive functions. Considering their importance for literacy, training executive functions-particularly, attentional control has been suggested as a promising way of improving reading skills. For this reason, we developed a video game-based cognitive intervention aimed at improving several facets of executive functions. This game is composed of mini-games that apply gamified versions of standard clinical exercises linked through a game environment with action video game dynamics. Here, in a study involving 151 typically reading children, we demonstrated that after this general-domain behavioural intervention reading abilities, as well as attentional and planning skills, were significantly improved. Our results showed that training attentional control can translate into better reading efficiency, maintained at a follow-up test 6 months later.

This chapter highlights the key role of two main factors, attentional control and reward processing, in unlocking brain plasticity. We first review the evidence for the role that each of these mechanisms plays in neuroplasticity, and then make the case that tools and technologies that combine these two are likely to result in maximal and broad, generalized benefits. In this context, we review the evidence concerning the impact of video game play on brain plasticity, with an eye toward plasticity-driving methods such as the seamless integration of neurofeedback into the video game platforms.

Internet use provides cognitive stimulation and thereby may contribute to the accumulation of cognitive reserve that is proposed to be instrumental for maintaining cognitive health in ageing. As the first study so far, we examined possible gender differences in the relationship between Internet use and subsequent cognitive decline over six years assessed through changes in Trail Making Test (TMT) accomplishment time in 897 older adults. Latent change score modelling (taking into account baseline cognitive level, chronic diseases, age, and central contributions to cognitive reserve through education, profession, and leisure engagement) revealed a significant interaction of frequency of Internet use and gender. More frequent Internet use in the first wave of data collection significantly predicted a smaller subsequent augmentation in TMT accomplishment time (i.e., a smaller subsequent cognitive decline) only in men, but not in women. In conclusion, frequent Internet use may contribute to the accumulation of cognitive reserve. The gender difference noted highlights an advantage for males. While this finding could be interpreted as gender-specific, it may be that the Internet activities males engage in differ from those of females, calling for a fine-grained investigation of Internet-based activities in future studies.

This chapter highlights the key role of two main factors, attentional control and reward processing, in unlocking brain plasticity. We first review the evidence for the role that each of these mechanisms plays in neuroplasticity, and then make the case that tools and technologies that combine these two are likely to result in maximal and broad, generalized benefits. In this context, we review the evidence concerning the impact of video game play on brain plasticity, with an eye toward plasticity-driving methods such as the seamless integration of neurofeedback into the video game platforms.

Training is typically characterized by a trade-off between developing efficient performance, or expertise, and maintaining the ability to generalize one's knowledge beyond the trained domain. Here we ask whether it may be possible to train individuals to enhance their generalization abilities despite this natural trade-off. We first review the proposal that enhanced attentional control and cognitive flexibility may be potential mechanisms that will produce broad generalization. We then consider the case of action video game play which has been associated with enhancements in both attentional control and cognitive flexibility as well as generalization beyond the trained intervention.

The American Psychiatric Association recently included Internet gaming disorder (IGD) as a potential diagnosis, recommending that further study be conducted to help illuminate it more clearly. This paper is a summary of the review undertaken by the IGD Working Group as part of the 2015 National Academy of Sciences Sackler Colloquium on Digital Media and Developing Minds. By using measures based on or similar to the IGD definition, we found that prevalence rates range between ∼1% and 9%, depending on age, country, and other sample characteristics. The etiology of IGD is not well-understood at this time, although it appears that impulsiveness and high amounts of time gaming may be risk factors. Estimates for the length of time the disorder can last vary widely, but it is unclear why. Although the authors of several studies have demonstrated that IGD can be treated, no randomized controlled trials have yet been published, making any definitive statements about treatment impossible. IGD does, therefore, appear to be an area in which additional research is clearly needed. We discuss several of the critical questions that future research should address and provide recommendations for clinicians, policy makers, and educators on the basis of what we know at this time.

Neural plasticity, or the ability of the brain to reorganize its structure and activity, is of critical importance. For nearly 50 years, the dominant framework in the field of learning and neural plasticity held that the brain was capable of truly large-scale changes only early in life. However, emerging evidence suggests that plasticity that had assumed to be “lost” due to age, injury, or disease may be at least partially re-established via genetic, pharmacological, and/or behavioral means. Yet, while it is true that humans retain a significant capacity to learn throughout the life span, a second roadblock frequently stands in the way of translating learning gains into practical real-world benefits. This obstacle is the “curse of specificity.” While it is true that, given appropriate training, humans will tend to improve on almost any task, the improvements that are observed are often confined to the exact training task, with little to no benefits of the training being observed for even seemingly very similar tasks. This chapter discusses the trend toward task-specific training on one working memory task, as well as the finding that action video game training does appear to lead to more generalizable improvements in cognitive performance.

Audio-visual associative learning - at least when linguistic stimuli are employed - is known to rely on core linguistic skills such as phonological awareness. Here we ask whether this would also be the case in a task that does not manipulate linguistic information. Another question of interest is whether executive skills, often found to support learning, may play a larger role in a non-linguistic audio-visual associative task compared to a linguistic one. We present a new task that measures learning when having to associate non-linguistic auditory signals with novel visual shapes. Importantly, our novel task shares with linguistic processes such as reading acquisition the need to associate sounds with arbitrary shapes. Yet, rather than phonemes or syllables, it uses novel environmental sounds - therefore limiting direct reliance on linguistic abilities. Five-year-old French-speaking children (N = 76, 39 girls) were assessed individually in our novel audio-visual associative task, as well as in a number of other cognitive tasks evaluating linguistic abilities and executive functions. We found phonological awareness and language comprehension to be related to scores in the audio-visual associative task, while no correlation with executive functions was observed. These results underscore a key relation between foundational language competencies and audio-visual associative learning, even in the absence of linguistic input in the associative task.

Playing action video games (AVG) has been associated with benefits in cognition. Nevertheless, AVG are often violent and concerns exist regarding the affective and social profile of frequent action video game players (AVGPs). This cross-sectional study contrasted individuals who frequently or seldom play AVG on laboratory measures of aggressive and altruistically-motivated behaviors, and self-report measures of aggressive and empathic personalities. Moreover, since previous research highlighted that competitive gaming is linked to aggression, a second goal was to investigate competitive personality in AVGPs. Using multiple regressions, we estimated how competitive personality, together with other personality and mental health factors, may explain individual variance in aggressive and altruistically-motivated behaviors. AVGPs displayed higher levels of competitive personality, aggressive behavior and personality compared with non-gamers, despite no difference in empathic personality or altruistically-motivated behavior. Importantly, competitive personality correlated with aggressive behavior. Accounting for competitiveness reduced the link between AVG play and aggressive behavior. This suggests that competitive personality may act as a common source to aggression and the motivation to play competitive activities such as AVG. This positive link also stresses the need to account for competitive personality in future studies investigating the link between AVG play and cognitive or affective performances.