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Schistosomiasis is a group of both acute and chronic parasitic trematode infections of the genus Schistosoma. Research into schistosomiasis has been minimal, leading to its classification as a neglected tropical disease, yet more than 140 million people are infected with schistosomes globally. There are no treatments available for early-stage infections, schistosomal dermatitis, or Katayama syndrome, other than symptomatic control with steroids and antihistamines, as the maturing organisms seem to be mostly resistant to typical antiparasitics. However, praziquantel (PZQ) has been the drug of choice for schistosomiasis for decades in the latter stages of the disease. Though it is effective against all three clinically relevant species, heavy reliance on PZQ has led to concerns of schistosome resistance, especially in areas that have implemented this drug in mass drug administration (MDA) programs. This article summarizes the available literature concerning the available evidence for and against a warranted concern for PZQ resistance, genomic studies in schistosomes, proposed mechanisms of resistance, and future research in alternative methods of schistosomiasis treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More than half of older people in long-term care facilities have dementia. Little is currently known about the methods and instruments which can be used to capture the perspectives of older people, including those with dementia, regarding the quality of care provided in such facilities. The main aims of this scoping review were two-fold. Firstly, to identify quality of care instruments that have been applied in long-term care settings. Secondly, to evaluate how these instruments have been developed and validated, particularly in terms of their applicability among older people with dementia. Seven databases (Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, ProQuest, Ageline, CINHAL and google scholar) were searched for relevant literature without any date limit. We used quality criteria adapted from COSMIN (Consensus-based Standards for the selection of health status Measurement Instruments) guidelines to assess the psychometric properties of the instruments. The search identified 16 quality of care instruments which had been used in long-term care settings. Of which, two (12.5%) were specifically designed for older people with dementia, and three instruments (18.7%) were modified for use with older people with mild to moderate dementia. A variety of methods were used to develop the identified instruments including literature reviews, qualitative interviews, expert panel reviews, pre-testing and piloting with older people. None of the identified instruments had been subjected to comprehensive psychometric assessment. Most instruments for assessing quality of care in long term care settings lack alternative communication techniques tailored to people with dementia. This review highlights the need for more rigorous psychometric testing of existing instruments for assessing quality of care in long-term care settings. Several existing measures show promise and may be taken forward for further testing and development for widespread application with older people, including those living with dementia, in long term care settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social discrimination is used as a territorial cost-mitigation behaviour across several taxonomic groups. However, whether this phenomenon is similar across populations or varies due to local ecological traits remains an open field. Here, we tested whether social discrimination ability exhibited by pairs of Rufous Horneros (Furnarius rufus) varies between two spatially distinct Brazilian populations (Brasília and Juiz de Fora), with contrasting population densities. We predicted that Rufous Horneros would show the highest aggression towards strangers' duets in the low-density population (the 'dear enemy effect'), and towards neighbours' duets in the high-density population (the 'nasty neighbour effect'). We also examined the impact of territorial centrality (distance to the centre of the conspecific neighbourhood) on territorial responses, assuming that territorial harassment varies with centrality. We observed a consistent dear enemy effect expression (i.e. lower response to simulated intrusions by neighbours compared to strangers) across both populations, despite their differing densities. Additionally, we found no effect of territorial centrality on playback responses. Our findings show that the dear enemy effect is widely distributed in Rufous Horneros, at least in the breeding season, being observed even in a high-density population. Our findings also highlight the lack of advantages for central territories. Future studies should investigate whether territorial mitigation strategies exhibit consistency across different contexts and taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since it was brought to Egypt in 2006, avian influenza virus has full-fledged to be one of the most prevalent and dangerous respiratory viruses. Over time, the avian influenza viruses have undergone significant evolution and grown increasingly due to antigenic drift and shift with difficulty to control. In recent years, Egypt's chicken industry has struggled to contain this disease due to maintenance of circulation of old avian influenza virus subtypes and development of new subtypes among Egyptian poultry flocks. Additionally, circulation of other respiratory viral pathogens, for example, infectious bronchitis virus & velogenic Newcastle disease virus strains have complicated process of control of AIV infection in Egypt. In the current review, we shed the light on the virus pathogenesis including effect of viral proteins and epidemiology with special focus on the significance of diverse infections between avian influenza virus along with additional respiratory pathogens, which generate more deadly symptoms and rapid bird deterioration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The synthesis of CpFe(CO)2ECOCH2CO2R [E = S (1), Se (2); R = Me (a), Et (b)] was achieved by treating (µ-Ex)[CpFe(CO)2]2 (E = S, x = 2–4, Se, x = 1) with alkyl malonyl chlorides at ambient temperature. The synthesized compounds were characterized by elemental analysis, FT-IR, 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy as well as with UV–Vis spectroscopic techniques. The molecular structures of 1a and 2a were determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction studies and reveal that the two compounds are monomeric in the solid state with the iron center located in a distorted octahedral environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are significant transboundary zoonotic pathogens that concern both animal and human. Since the first report of H5N1 AIV in Bangladesh in early 2007, it resulted in numerous outbreaks across the country, hindering the sustainable growth of the poultry industry through economic losses in different production systems (commercial and backyard). Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) virus are currently cocirculating and causing infection in poultry sectors in an endemic manner in Bangladesh as well as in wild bird species. The introduction of multiple clades of H5N1 in different poultry species and the reassortment of AIVs with different patterns of infections have complicated the epidemiological situation for control and created conditions to increase the virulence of the virus, host range, and potential zoonotic transmission. The risk of viral transmission at the human–poultry interface is increasing over time due to inadequate surveillance and early detection strategies and practices, ineffective biosecurity practices among poultry raisers, and the complex supply chains of backyard and commercial poultry and live bird market (LBM) systems. Improving AIV surveillance in poultry flocks and LBMs, vaccination, biosecurity, and awareness among poultry professionals is beneficial to controlling the disease burden in the poultry sector. However, human cases of AIV related to poultry production and marketing chain in Bangladesh suggest a One Health approach engaging various stakeholders from the public and private would be a better option for successfully controlling avian influenza outbreaks in Bangladesh. This review of literature presents the comprehensive overview of AIV infection status in Bangladesh, including a description of pathways for zoonotic transmission at different epidemiological interfaces, the genetic evolution of the virus, and the need for improvement of disease control strategies incorporated with early detection, application of effective vaccines, increases the proper biosecurity practices and improvement of awareness among the poultry raisers, traders and consumers using a One Health approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N6, an acute infectious poultry disease, has appeared in China since 2014. The serious HPAI H5N6 epidemic has caused substantial economic losses to the poultry industry and seriously threatened public health. This study developed two maximum entropy models based on highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N6 surveillance data obtained through China's national surveillance program and HPAI H5N6 outbreak data in China, identified risk factors for the disease and developed risk prediction maps. Both models had a good predictive performance with area under the receiver operating characteristic curves of 0.931 and 0.892. Our study considered 26 variables from bioclimate, geographical, and socioeconomic factors. After the screening, 14 variables were retained and incorporated into the construction of the two models. HPAIV H5N6 presence was related to population density, road density, poultry market density, mean diurnal range, and chicken density. HPAI H5N6 poultry outbreaks were associated with population density, road density, mean diurnal range, precipitation of the driest month, and chicken density. Overall, Southern China was the high-risk area for HPAIV H5N6 maintenance and H5N6 outbreak. The risk factors and maps associated with the HPAIV H5N6 presence and HPAI H5N6 outbreak identified in our study will help develop appropriate HPAIV H5N6 control measures to reduce the risk of infection and morbidity in poultry and humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infections with avian influenza A/H5N1 viruses have been confirmed in many species of birds and mammals. Despite intensive epidemiological and epizootiological surveillance, the number of cases among humans and animals is constantly increasing. Although for years have been thought to be immune to illnesses caused by influenza viruses it is now known that both domestic cats and large felids are susceptible to infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza A/H5N1 virus (HPAIV A/H5N1). This virus causes mainly respiratory tract infections, which can lead to systemic disease. Affected cats are febrile, they show shortness of breath, then neurological signs develop, however asymptomatic infections can also occur. So far, domestic cats have been found to acquire infection by direct contact with sick birds, especially by eating raw poultry, but cat-to-cat transmission is also possible. While there has been no reassortment of avian and mammalian influenza viruses in cats as yet, virologists are concerned that feline hosts may give influenza A/H5N1 viruses the opportunity to adapt to mammalian hosts. This short review summarizes information on avian influenza virus infections in cats, with particular emphasis on practical aspects of diagnosis and prevention adressed to veterinarians. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Urmia lake, as a national park, is one of the most valuable aquatic ecosystems in the Middle East and quatitative and qualitative changes in Urmia lake water have a great impact on its ecological performance and in the region. Objectives: This project was designed to study the effects of the extent of Urmia lake water surface area on the area size and on the number of aquatic birds of the six selected habitats in 2011–2019. The presence of avian influenza (AI) and Newcastle disease (ND) viruses in migratory aquatic birds together with their impacts on poultry farms as well as on rural birds was also under surveillance in 2018–2019. Methods: Changes of Urmia lake and its impacts on area size of the six selected birds habitats were monitored by GIS. The small monitoring program with circular plot point counts was used for counting of the number of birds of the six selected habitats. At least, 100 samples (oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs) were collected. each sample was placed in a sterile plastic tube containg transport media and assigned with an number and store untill used. Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) and real‐time RT‐PCR test were used for detection of AI and ND viruses in the samples. Results: The results revealed that changes in the water surface area of Urmia lake had a gsignificat impacts on area size and the number of aquatic birds of the six selected habitats. The surveillance results showed that 5% of the samples were AIV positvie while 25% of the samples were pasitive for NDV including 20% for non‐virulent NDV (lNDV) and 5% for virulent NDV (vNDV) strains. Conclusion: This study showed that fluctuation of Urmia lake's water surface area influenced (p < 0.05) the area size of the six selected aquatic birds' habitats and had a great impacts on the number of the migratory birds. Detection of AIV and vNDV emphesises that the seasonal migratory waterfowls spread AI and vND viruses to the ponds and estuaries as well as to the rural birds and industrialised poultry units around the Urmia lake. Potential public health treats were also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over 4 months in the winter of 2016–2017, 343 poultry farms in South Korea reported highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N6 occurrences, leading to the culling of 40 million poultry. Our study aimed to describe the spatial epidemiology of the 2016–2017 HPAI H5N6 outbreak in Gyeonggi Province, the most affected area in South Korea, comprising 35.9% (123) of the HPAI‐infected poultry farms, to identify spatial risk factors for the increased probability of HPAI H5N6 occurrence, and to delineate areas with the highest likelihood of infection among different target poultry species. Although the poultry density was risk factor for the all species, rice paddy was only identified as risk factor for chicken and duck farms, not for other species farms suggesting that different biosecurity measures are required depending on the species. Although spatial effects of HPAI occurrence tended to be clustered within 16 km, the cluster range was reduced to 7 km when considering the identified risk factors, indicating a more geographically focused outbreak response when taking risk factors into account. The areas identified with the highest likelihood of infection can provide evidence, with accessibility to policymakers, to improve risk‐based surveillance for HPAI. Our findings provide epidemiological understanding helpful in improving surveillance activity and assisting in the design of more cost‐effective intervention policies related to future HPAI outbreaks in South Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zoonotic diseases are of considerable concern to the human population and viruses such as avian influenza (AIV) threaten food security, wildlife conservation and human health. Wild waterfowl and the natural wetlands they use are known AIV reservoirs, with birds capable of virus transmission to domestic poultry populations. While infection risk models have linked migration routes and AIV outbreaks, there is a limited understanding of wild waterfowl presence on commercial livestock facilities, and movement patterns linked to natural wetlands. We documented 11 wild waterfowl (three Anatidae species) in or near eight commercial livestock facilities in Washington and California with GPS telemetry data. Wild ducks used dairy and beef cattle feed lots and facility retention ponds during both day and night suggesting use for roosting and foraging. Two individuals (single locations) were observed inside poultry facility boundaries while using nearby wetlands. Ducks demonstrated high site fidelity, returning to the same areas of habitats (at livestock facilities and nearby wetlands), across months or years, showed strong connectivity with surrounding wetlands, and arrived from wetlands up to 1251 km away in the week prior. Telemetry data provides substantial advantages over observational data, allowing assessment of individual movement behaviour and wetland connectivity that has significant implications for outbreak management. Telemetry improves our understanding of risk factors for waterfowl–livestock virus transmission and helps identify factors associated with coincident space use at the wild waterfowl–domestic livestock interface. Our research suggests that even relatively small or isolated natural and artificial water or food sources in/near facilities increases the likelihood of attracting waterfowl, which has important consequences for managers attempting to minimize or prevent AIV outbreaks. Use and interpretation of telemetry data, especially in near‐real‐time, could provide key information for reducing virus transmission risk between waterfowl and livestock, improving protective barriers between wild and domestic species, and abating outbreaks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza viruses have been posing a great threat to public health and animal industry. The developed vaccines have been widely used to reduce the risk of potential pandemic; however, the ongoing antigenic drift makes influenza virus escape from host immune response and hampers vaccine efficacy. Until now, the genetic basis of antigenic variation remains largely unknown. In this study, we used A/swine/Guangxi/18/2011 (GX/18) and A/swine/Guangdong/104/2013 (GD/104) as models to explore the molecular determinant for antigenic variation of Eurasian avian‐like H1N1 (EA H1N1) swine influenza viruses (SIVs) and found that the GD/104 virus exhibited 32‐ to 64‐fold lower antigenic cross‐reactivity with antibodies against GX/18 virus. Therefore, we generated polyclonal antibodies against GX/18 or GD/104 virus and a monoclonal antibody (mAb), named mAb102‐95, targeted to the haemagglutinin (HA) protein of GX/18 virus and found that a single amino acid substitution at position 158 in HA protein substantially altered the antigenicity of the virus. The reactivity of GX/18 virus containing G158E mutation with the mAb102‐95 decreased eightfold than that of the parental strain. Contrarily, the reactivity of GD/104 virus bearing E158G mutation with the mAb102‐95 increased by 32 times as compared with that of the parental virus. Structural analysis showed that the amino acid mutation from G to E was accompanied with the R group changing from ‐H to ‐(CH2)2‐COOH. The induced steric effect and increased hydrophilicity of HA protein surface probably jointly contributed to the antigenic drift of EA H1N1 SIVs. Our study provides experimental evidence that G158E mutation in HA protein affects the antigenic property of EA H1N1 SIVs and widens our horizon on the antigenic drift of influenza virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A global pandemic has been declared for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which has serious impacts on human health and healthcare systems in the affected areas, including Vietnam. None of the previous studies have a framework to provide summary statistics of the virus variants and assess the severity associated with virus proteins and host cells in COVID-19 patients in Vietnam.Method: In this paper, we comprehensively investigated SARS-CoV-2 variants and immune responses in COVID-19 patients. We provided summary statistics of target sequences of SARS-CoV-2 in Vietnam and other countries for data scientists to use in downstream analysis for therapeutic targets. For host cells, we proposed a predictive model of the severity of COVID-19 based on public datasets of hospitalization status in Vietnam, incorporating a polygenic risk score. This score uses immunogenic SNP biomarkers as indicators of COVID-19 severity.Result: We identified that the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 is most prevalent in southern areas of Vietnam and it is different from other areas in the world using various data sources. Our predictive models of COVID-19 severity had high accuracy (Random Forest AUC = 0.81, Elastic Net AUC = 0.7, and SVM AUC = 0.69) and showed that the use of polygenic risk scores increased the models' predictive capabilities.Conclusion: We provided a comprehensive analysis for COVID-19 severity in Vietnam. This investigation is not only helpful for COVID-19 treatment in therapeutic target studies, but also could influence further research on the disease progression and personalized clinical outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gene numbers and evolutionary rates of birds were assumed to be much lower than those of mammals, which is in sharp contrast to the huge species number and morphological diversity of birds. It is, therefore, necessary to construct a complete avian genome and analyze its evolution. We constructed a chicken pan-genome from 20 de novo assembled genomes with high sequencing depth, and identified 1,335 protein-coding genes and 3,011 long noncoding RNAs not found in GRCg6a. The majority of these novel genes were detected across most individuals of the examined transcriptomes but were seldomly measured in each of the DNA sequencing data regardless of Illumina or PacBio technology. Furthermore, different from previous pan-genome models, most of these novel genes were overrepresented on chromosomal subtelomeric regions and microchromosomes, surrounded by extremely high proportions of tandem repeats, which strongly blocks DNA sequencing. These hidden genes were proved to be shared by all chicken genomes, included many housekeeping genes, and enriched in immune pathways. Comparative genomics revealed the novel genes had 3-fold elevated substitution rates than known ones, updating the knowledge about evolutionary rates in birds. Our study provides a framework for constructing a better chicken genome, which will contribute toward the understanding of avian evolution and the improvement of poultry breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian influenza viruses pose a threat to wildlife and livestock health. The emergence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in wild birds and poultry in North America in late 2021 was the first such outbreak since 2015 and the largest outbreak in North America to date. Despite its prominence and economic impacts, we know relatively little about how HPAI spreads in wild bird populations. In January 2022, we captured 43 mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) in Tennessee, USA, 11 of which were actively infected with HPAI. These were the first confirmed detections of HPAI H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b in the Mississippi Flyway. We compared movement patterns of infected and uninfected birds and found no clear differences; infected birds moved just as much during winter, migrated slightly earlier, and migrated similar distances as uninfected birds. Infected mallards also contacted and shared space with uninfected birds while on their wintering grounds, suggesting ongoing transmission of the virus. We found no differences in body condition or survival rates between infected and uninfected birds. Together, these results show that HPAI H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b infection was unrelated to body condition or movement behavior in mallards infected at this location during winter; if these results are confirmed in other seasons and as HPAI H5N1 continues to evolve, they suggest that these birds could contribute to the maintenance and dispersal of HPAI in North America. Further research on more species across larger geographic areas and multiple seasons would help clarify potential impacts of HPAI on waterfowl and how this emerging disease spreads at continental scales, across species, and potentially between wildlife and domestic animals., (© 2023. Springer Nature Limited.)

The non-structural protein 1 (NS1) of influenza A viruses plays important roles in viral fitness and in the process of interspecies adaptation. It is one of the most polymorphic and mutation-tolerant proteins of the influenza A genome, but its evolutionary patterns in different host species and the selective pressures that underlie them are hard to define. In this review, we highlight some of the species-specific molecular signatures apparent in different NS1 proteins and discuss two functions of NS1 in the process of viral adaptation to new host species. First, we consider the ability of NS1 proteins to broadly suppress host protein expression through interaction with CPSF4. This NS1 function can be spontaneously lost and regained through mutation and must be balanced against the need for host co-factors to aid efficient viral replication. Evidence suggests that this function of NS1 may be selectively lost in the initial stages of viral adaptation to some new host species. Second, we explore the ability of NS1 proteins to inhibit antiviral interferon signaling, an essential function for viral replication without which the virus is severely attenuated in any host. Innate immune suppression by NS1 not only enables viral replication in tissues, but also dampens the adaptive immune response and immunological memory. NS1 proteins suppress interferon signaling and effector functions through a variety of protein-protein interactions that may differ from host to host but must achieve similar goals. The multifunctional influenza A virus NS1 protein is highly plastic, highly versatile, and demonstrates a diversity of context-dependent solutions to the problem of interspecies adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clade 2.3.4.4 H5Nx highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) have caused outbreaks in poultry in the world. Some of these viruses acquired internal genes from other subtype avian influenza viruses (AIVs) such as H9 and H6 for the generation of novel reassortant viruses and continually circulated in poultry. Here, we applied a duck-origin virus DK87 and a chicken-origin virus CK66 to assess the biological characteristics of novel reassortant H5N6 HPAIVs and its pathogenesis in ducks. A genetic analysis indicated that the HA genes of the two H5N6 HPAIVs were closely related to the H5 viruses of clade 2.3.4.4 circulating in Eastern Asia and classified into H5 AIV/Eastern Asia (EA)-like lineage. Their NA genes fell into Eurasian lineage had close relationship with those of H5N6 viruses circulating in China, Laos, Vietnam, Japan, and Korea. All internal genes of DK87 were aggregated closely with H5 AIV/EA-like viruses. The internal genes (PB1, PA, NP, M, and NS) of CK66 were derived from H9N2 AIV/SH98-like viruses and the PB2 were derived from H5 AIV/EA-like viruses. These results indicate that clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 AIVs have continually evolved and recombined with the H9N2 viruses circulating in Southern China. Pathogenicity test showed that the two viruses displayed a broader tissue distribution in ducks and caused no clinical signs. These results indicated that ducks were permissive for the replication of the chicken-origin reassortant virus CK66 without prior adaptation, but the duck-origin virus DK87-inoculated ducks showed significantly higher viral titers in some organs than the CK66-inoculated ducks at 5 day post-inoculated (DPI). The recovery of viruses from oropharyngea and cloacal swabs of contacted ducks indicated that they transmitted in native ducks by direct contact. Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) results revealed that the immune-relative genes (PRRs, IFNs, Mx-1, IL-6, and IL-8) in the lungs of inoculated ducks were expressed regardless of virus origin, but the expression of these genes was significantly higher in response to infection with the DK87 virus compared to the CK66 virus at 3 DPI. Overall, we should provide further insights into how clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 AIVs undergo genetic and pathogenic variations to prevent outbreaks of this disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Birds, notably wild ducks, are reservoirs of pathogenic and zoonotic viruses such as influenza viruses and coronaviruses. In the current study, we used metagenomics to detect and characterise avian DNA and RNA viruses from wild Pacific black ducks, Chestnut teals and Grey teals collected at different time points from a single location. We characterised a likely new species of duck aviadenovirus and a novel duck gyrovirus. We also report what, to the best of our knowledge, is the first finding of an avian orthoreovirus from Pacific black ducks and a rotavirus F from Chestnut teals. Other viruses characterised from the samples from these wild ducks belong to the virus families Astroviridae, Caliciviridae and Coronaviridae. Some of the viruses may have potential cross-species transmissibility, while others indicated a wide genetic diversity of duck viruses within a genus. The study also showed evidence of potential transmission of viruses along the East Asian—Australasian Flyway; potentially facilitated by migrating shorebirds. The detection and characterisation of several avian viruses not previously described, and causing asymptomatic but potentially also symptomatic infections suggest the need for more virus surveillance studies for pathogenic and potential zoonotic viruses in wildlife reservoirs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mallard ducks are a natural host and reservoir of avian Influenza A viruses. While most influenza strains can replicate in mallards, the virus typically does not cause substantial disease in this host. Mallards are often resistant to disease caused by highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses, while the same strains can cause severe infection in humans, chickens, and even other species of ducks, resulting in systemic spread of the virus and even death. The differences in influenza detection and antiviral effectors responsible for limiting damage in the mallards are largely unknown. Domestic mallards have an early and robust innate response to infection that seems to limit replication and clear highly pathogenic strains. The regulation and timing of the response to influenza also seems to circumvent damage done by a prolonged or dysregulated immune response. Rapid initiation of innate immune responses depends on viral recognition by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) expressed in tissues where the virus replicates. RIG-like receptors (RLRs), Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and Nod-like receptors (NLRs) are all important influenza sensors in mammals during infection. Ducks utilize many of the same PRRs to detect influenza, namely RIG-I, TLR7, and TLR3 and their downstream adaptors. Ducks also express many of the same signal transduction proteins including TBK1, TRIF, and TRAF3. Some antiviral effectors expressed downstream of these signaling pathways inhibit influenza replication in ducks. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in our understanding of influenza recognition and response through duck PRRs and their adaptors. We compare basal tissue expression and regulation of these signaling components in birds, to better understand what contributes to influenza resistance in the duck. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In July 2016, an avian influenza outbreak in duck farms in Yogyakarta province was reported to Disease Investigation Center (DIC), Wates, Indonesia, with approximately 1,000 ducks died or culled. In this study, two avian influenza (AI) virus subtypes, A/duck/Bantul/04161291‐OR/2016 (H5N1) and A/duck/Bantul/04161291‐OP/2016 (H9N2) isolated from ducks in the same farm during an AI outbreak in Bantul district, Yogyakarta province, were sequenced and characterized. Our results showed that H5N1 virus was closely related to the highly pathogenic AI (HPAI) H5N1 of clade 2.3.2.1c, while the H9N2 virus was clustered with LPAI viruses from China, Vietnam and Indonesia H9N2 (CVI lineage). Genetic analysis revealed virulence characteristics for both in avian and in mammalian species. In summary, co‐circulation of HPAI‐H5N1 of clade 2.3.2.1c and LPAI‐H9N2 was identified in a duck farm during an AI outbreak in Yogyakarta province, Indonesia. Our findings raise a concern of the potential risk of the viruses, which could increase viral transmission and/or threat to human health. Routine surveillance of avian influenza viruses should be continuously conducted to understand the dynamic and diversity of the viruses for influenza prevention and control in Indonesia and SEA region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) belonging to clade 2.3.4.4 spread from Eastern China to Korea in 2014 and caused outbreaks in domestic poultry until 2016. To understand how H5N8 HPAIVs spread at host species level in Korea during 2014–2016, a Bayesian phylogenetic analysis was used for ancestral state reconstruction and estimation of the host transition dynamics between wild waterfowl, domestic ducks and chickens. Our data support that H5N8 HPAIV most likely transmitted from wild waterfowl to domestic ducks, and then maintained in domestic ducks followed by dispersal of HPAIV from domestic ducks to chickens, suggesting domestic duck population plays a central role in the maintenance, amplification and spread of wild HPAIV to terrestrial poultry in Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five novel H5N6 influenza viruses, including four highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses and one low pathogenic avian influenza virus, were isolated from migratory birds in Ningxia, China, in November 2017. To understand the genetic origination of the novel H5N6 virus, and the infectivity and pathogenicity of the four highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in mammals, phylogeographic analyses and infection studies in mice were performed. The phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses showed that the H5N6 isolates, which are closely related to the viruses from Korea, Japan and the Netherlands, originated from reassortant virus between H5N8 and HxN6 viruses from western Russia. The animal study revealed that the SBD‐87 isolate presented moderate virulence in mice, suggesting a potential public risk to humans and a potential threat to public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A total of 15 dead or sick birds from 13 clinical outbreaks of avian influenza in ducks, geese, chickens and turkeys in 2017 in Bangladesh were examined. The presence of H5N1 influenza A virus in the affected birds was detected by RT‐PCR. Phylogenetic analysis based on full‐length gene sequences of all eight gene segments revealed that these recent outbreaks were caused by a new reassortant of clade 2.3.2.1a H5N1 virus, which had been detected earlier in 2015 during surveillance in live bird markets (LBMs) and wet lands. This reassortant virus acquired PB2, PB1, PA, NP and NS genes from low pathogenic avian influenza viruses mostly of non‐H9N2 subtypes but retained HA, NA and M genes of the old clade 2.3.2.1a viruses. Nevertheless, the HA gene of these new viruses was 2.7% divergent from that of the old clade 2.3.2.1a viruses circulated in Bangladesh. Interestingly, similar reassortment events could be traced back in four 2.3.2.1a virus isolates of 2013 from backyard ducks. It suggests that this reassortant virus emerged in 2013, which took two years to be detected at a broader scale (i.e. in LBMs), another two years until it became widely spread in poultry and fully replaced the old viruses. Several mutations were detected in the recent Bangladeshi isolates, which are likely to influence possible phenotypic alterations such as increased mammalian adaptation, reduced susceptibility to antiviral agents and reduced host antiviral response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clade 2.3.4.4 H5 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are widely prevalent and of significant concern to the poultry industry and public health in China. Nowadays, the clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 virus has become a dominant AIV subtype among domestic ducks in southern China. We found that waterfowl-origin clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 viruses (A/goose/Guangdong/16568/2016, GS16568 and A/duck/Guangdong/16873/2016, DK16873) isolated from southern China in 2016 could replicate in multiple organs of inoculated ducks. DK16873 virus caused mild infections and killed 2/5 of inoculated ducks, and GS16568 virus did not kill inoculated ducks. In addition, the two viruses could be transmitted via direct contact between ducks. DK16873 and GS16568 viruses killed 2/5 and 1/5 of contact ducks, respectively. Furthermore, ducks inoculated with the two H5N6 viruses exhibited different expressions of immune-related genes in their lungs. The expression of RIG-I, TLR3 and IL6 was significantly upregulated at 12 h post-inoculation (HPI) and most of the tested immune-related genes were significantly upregulated at 3 days post-inoculation (DPI). Notably, the expression of RIG-I and IL-6 in response to DK16873 virus was significantly higher than for GS16568 virus at 12 HPI and 3 DPI. Our research have provided helpful information about the pathogenicity, transmission and immune-related genes expression in ducks infected with new H5N6 AIVs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mallard ducks are important natural hosts of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses and many strains circulate in this reservoir and cause little harm. Some strains can be transmitted to other hosts, including chickens, and cause respiratory and systemic disease. Rarely, these highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses cause disease in mallards, while chickens are highly susceptible. The long co-evolution of mallard ducks with influenza viruses has undoubtedly fine-tuned many immunological host-pathogen interactions to confer resistance to disease, which are poorly understood. Here, we compare innate responses to different avian influenza viruses in ducks and chickens to reveal differences that point to potential mechanisms of disease resistance. Mallard ducks are permissive to LPAI replication in their intestinal tissues without overtly compromising their fitness. In contrast, the mallard response to HPAI infection reflects an immediate and robust induction of type I interferon and antiviral interferon stimulated genes, highlighting the importance of the RIG-I pathway. Ducks also appear to limit the duration of the response, particularly of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. Chickens lack RIG-I, and some modulators of the signaling pathway and may be compromised in initiating an early interferon response, allowing more viral replication and consequent damage. We review current knowledge about innate response mediators to influenza infection in mallard ducks compared to chickens to gain insight into protective immune responses, and open questions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Catastrophic‐selection" is an evolutionary mechanism, by which entire parental‐populations are eliminated but very few mutated offspring survive and replace extinct parental‐populations. The human natural anti‐carbohydrate antibodies, anti‐Gal and anti‐Neu5Gc suggest the occurrence of catastrophic‐selection events in primate evolution. Parental‐populations synthesizing corresponding carbohydrate‐antigens underwent extinction in viral epidemics, and few offspring survived. These offspring carried accidental mutations that inactivated carbohydrate‐antigen synthesis and produced natural‐antibody against the lost antigen. Such natural anti‐carbohydrate antibody was produced against environmental carbohydrate‐antigens (e.g., gastrointestinal bacteria). The carbohydrate‐antigen in infected parental‐populations was also synthesized on viruses by the host glycosylation‐machinery. The natural‐antibody in the offspring bound to the carbohydrate‐antigen on infecting viruses produced in parental‐populations, destroyed the viruses and protected these offspring from extinction. This process occurred in ancestral Old‐World monkeys and apes synthesizing α‐gal epitopes, which were replaced 20–30 million‐years‐ago by offspring lacking α‐gal epitopes and producing natural anti‐Gal antibody against this antigen, and later in hominins synthesizing the sialic‐acid antigen Neu5Gc, which were replaced by offspring lacking Neu5Gc and producing anti‐Neu5Gc antibody. A present‐day example for accidental mutations in very few humans that lost a common carbohydrate‐antigen and produce a natural antibody against it is the rare blood‐group "Bombay" individuals. These individuals lack the H‐antigen (blood‐group O) which is synthesized in all other humans, and produce the natural anti‐H antibody against blood‐group O. Overall, it is suggested that natural anti‐carbohydrate antibodies played a critical role in preventing complete extinction of mammalian species in epidemics of highly virulent viruses and may have similar role in future events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is of major importance for human and animal health because of high morbidity and mortality in poultry and the potential for transmission of this zoonotic pathogen to humans. Knowledge of HPAI epidemiology in avian populations and practical information on the temporal and spatial spread of the disease after introduction into a country is important in order to enhance the capacity of predicting and managing epidemics to minimize the negative impacts on human and animal health. Using data reported to the World Organisation for Animal Health between 2005 and 2017 by 199 countries for 14,129 outbreaks in poultry, we used a spatial and time‐series analysis to determine that: (a) During the last 12 years, there were two major global peaks in the number of countries affected by HPAI with 23% and 26% of countries affected in 2006 and 2016. (b) Based on the seasonality analysis, spread is the lowest in September, begins to rise in October, and peaks in February. (c) The median distance HPAI outbreaks spread from the index outbreak was 111 km, while the median apparent rate of spread of outbreaks was 1.9 km/day. (d) In 39% of HPAI events, the disease did not spread beyond the index outbreak and the median maximum spread from the index outbreak per event was 45 km. (e) The distance HPAI outbreaks spread from the index outbreak was significantly negatively correlated with the number of outbreaks during the same time period, indicating that the spread of HPAI was lower during global panzootics than during periods of low transmission. These findings are of major importance for veterinary services to design and implement surveillance measures for improving preparedness to minimize the impacts of this disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian influenza viruses can pose serious risks to agricultural production, human health, and wildlife. An understanding of viruses in wild reservoir species across time and space is important to informing surveillance programs, risk models, and potential population impacts for vulnerable species. Although it is recognized that influenza A virus prevalence peaks in reservoir waterfowl in late summer through autumn, temporal and spatial variation across species has not been fully characterized. We combined two large influenza databases for North America and applied spatiotemporal models to explore patterns in prevalence throughout the annual cycle and across the continental United States for 30 waterfowl species. Peaks in prevalence in late summer through autumn were pronounced for dabbling ducks in the genera Anas and Spatula, but not Mareca. Spatially, areas of high prevalence appeared to be related to regional duck density, with highest predicted prevalence found across the upper Midwest during early fall, though further study is needed. We documented elevated prevalence in late winter and early spring, particularly in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Our results suggest that spatiotemporal variation in prevalence outside autumn staging areas may also represent a dynamic parameter to be considered in IAV ecology and associated risks., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Summary: The highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 viruses continue to cause major problems in poultry and can, although rarely, cause human infection. Being enzootic in domestic poultry, Egyptian isolates are continuously evolving, and novel clades vary in their pathogenicity in avian hosts. Considering the importance of domestic ducks as natural hosts of HPAI H5N1 viruses and their likelihood of physical contact with other avian hosts and humans, it is of utmost importance to characterize the pathogenicity of newly emerged HPAI strains in the domestic duck. The most recently identified Egyptian clade 2.2.1.2 HPAI H5N1 viruses have been isolated from naturally infected pigeons, turkeys and humans. However, essentially nothing is known about their pathogenicity in domestic ducks. We therefore characterized the pathogenicity of an Egyptian HPAI H5N1 isolate A/chicken/Faquos/amn12/2011 (clade 2.2.1.2) in Sudani duck, a domestic duck breed commonly reared in Egypt. While viral transcription (HA mRNA) was highest in lung, heart and kidney peaking between 40 and 48 hpi, lower levels were detected in brain. Weight loss of infected ducks started at 16 hpi and persisted until 120 hpi. The first severe clinical signs were noted by 32 hpi and peaked in severity at 72 and 96 hpi. Haematological analyses showed a decline in total leucocytes, granulocytes, platelets and granulocyte/lymphocyte ratio, but lymphocytosis. Upon necropsy, lesions were obvious in heart, liver, spleen and pancreas and consisted mainly of necrosis and petechial haemorrhage. Histologically, lungs were the most severely affected organs, whereas brain only showed mild neuronal degeneration and gliosis at 48 hpi despite obvious neurological clinical signs. Taken together, our results provide first evidence that this HPAI H5N1 isolate (clade 2.2.1.2) is highly pathogenic to Sudani ducks and highlight the importance of this breed as potential reservoir and disseminator of HPAI strains from this clade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: In the absence of robust active surveillance of avian influenza viruses (AIV) affecting poultry in South Asian countries, monitoring of live bird markets (LBMs) can be an alternative. In a longitudinal study of 32 LBM, five environments were sampled as follows: market floor, stall floor, slaughter area, poultry holding cage and water used for meat processing. Samples were taken monthly for 5 months, September 2013–January 2014. Incidence rates (IRs) of LBM contamination with AIV and its subtypes H5, H7 and H9 were assessed. In 10 of the LBM selected, biosecurity measures had been implemented through FAO interventions: the other 22 were non‐intervened. Standard procedures were applied to detect AIV and three subtypes in pooled samples (1:5). An LBM was considered positive for AIV or a subtype if at least one of the pooled samples tested positive. The incidence rates of LBM contamination with AIV, H5, H7 and H9 were 0.194 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.136–0.276), 0.031 (95% CI 0.013–0.075), 0 and 0.175 (95% CI 0.12–0.253) per LBM‐month at risk, respectively. The log IR ratio between the FAO‐intervened and non‐intervened LBM for contamination with AIV was −0.329 (95% CI −1.052 to −0.394, p = .372), 0.598 (95% CI −1.593 to 2.789, p = .593) with subtype H5 and −0.500 (95% CI −1.249 to 0.248, p = .190) with subtype H9, indicating no significant difference. The results obtained suggest that both H5 and H9 were circulating in LBM in Bangladesh in the second half of 2013. The incidence of contamination with H9 was much higher than with H5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

H9N2 influenza virus has a great potential for causing severe economic loss in ducks especially in backyard ducks. The current study was conducted to isolate H9N2 influenza virus from backyard ducks and preparation of antiserum against isolated H9N2 influenza virus in rabbits and further evaluation by neutralization test. Samples from liver, spleen, brain and lung were collected from clinically infected ducks during 2014 and 2015. The viruses were isolated and propagated by inoculation of 10 days old embryonated chicken eggs via the allantoic sac. The allantoic fluid was harvested and tested for the titration of the HA activity using chicken erythrocytes. Avian influenza virus type A antigen was detected by flu detect strip test. The RNA was extracted from HA-positive allantoic fluid and identified by RT-PCR using specific primers for H9N2 virus. Antiserum against H9N2 virus was prepared in rabbits. The produced antibody was tested and titrated by HI test against H9N2 isolates from ducks and chickens as well as field samples from ducks and H5N1 isolated from chickens. Neutralization test was also done for evaluation H9N2 antibody protective titer. Ten samples from ducks were HA positive with titer values of 2-5 to 2-10. The HA titer of H9N2 isolates from chickens ranged from 2-4 to 2-11. Also, 16 field samples from ducks were HA positive with titer values of 2-3 to 2-7 and the HA titer of H5N1 isolates from chickens ranged from 2-7 to 2-12. The results of RT-PCR showed that the 10 samples from ducks were positive for H9N2 HA gene. The HI results showed complete inhibition of H9N2 isolates from ducks and chickens. HI test for field samples from ducks showed complete inhibition of 16 field samples. On the contrary, HI test for H5N1 isolates from chickens showed no inhibition of 13 isolates using H9N2 rabbit specific antiserum. The neutralization index using H9N2 virus was 2-5. The presence of LPAI H9N2 may add another risk factor to the poultry industry in Egypt together with the endemicity of HPAI H5N1, especially that backyard ducks and chickens are reared in direct contact allowing easy virus transmission and adds more stress to the poultry populations. Further, false negative results for the detection of H5N1 using H9 antibodies should be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since its first detection in 1998, avian influenza virus (AIV) subtype H9N2 has been enzootic in Iran. To better understand the evolutionary history of H9N2 viruses in Iran, we sequenced 15 currently circulating H9N2 viruses from domestic poultry during 2017-2019 and performed phylogenetic analysis of complete genome sequences. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that the Iranian H9N2 viruses formed multiple well-supported monophyletic groups within the G1-lineage of H9N2 virus. Our analysis of viral population dynamics revealed an increase in genetic diversity until 2007, corresponding to the multiple introductions and diversification of H9N2 viruses into multiple genetic groups (named Iran 1-4 subgroups), followed by a sudden decrease after 2008. Only the Iran 4 subgroup has survived, expanded, and currently circulates in Iran. The H9N2 viruses possessed many molecular markers associated with mammalian adaption in all gene segments, except neuraminidase gene. Considering the presence of mammalian host-specific markers, the public health threat of H9N2 viruses continues. Molecular analysis showed that Iranian H9N2 strains have continued to evolve and recent strains have multiple amino acid changes and addition of potential N-glycosylation on the antigenic sites of haemagglutinin. Continued antigenic and molecular surveillance of H9N2 viruses in poultry and mammals would be required to monitor further increments in viral evolution and their potential threat to public health., (© 2020 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Influenza viruses cause annual seasonal epidemics and occasional pandemics of human respiratory disease. Influenza virus infections represent a serious public health and economic problem, which are most effectively prevented through vaccination. However, influenza viruses undergo continual antigenic variation, which requires either the annual reformulation of seasonal influenza vaccines or the rapid generation of vaccines against potential pandemic virus strains. The segmented nature of influenza virus allows for the reassortment between two or more viruses within a co-infected cell, and this characteristic has also been harnessed in the laboratory to generate reassortant viruses for their use as either inactivated or live-attenuated influenza vaccines. With the implementation of plasmid-based reverse genetics techniques, it is now possible to engineer recombinant influenza viruses entirely from full-length complementary DNA copies of the viral genome by transfection of susceptible cells. These reverse genetics systems have provided investigators with novel and powerful approaches to answer important questions about the biology of influenza viruses, including the function of viral proteins, their interaction with cellular host factors and the mechanisms of influenza virus transmission and pathogenesis. In addition, reverse genetics techniques have allowed the generation of recombinant influenza viruses, providing a powerful technology to develop both inactivated and live-attenuated influenza vaccines. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge of state-of-the-art, plasmid-based, influenza reverse genetics approaches and their implementation to provide rapid, convenient, safe and more effective influenza inactivated or live-attenuated vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ducks can shed and disseminate viruses and thus play a role in cross-species transmission. In the current study, we detected and characterised various avian parvoviruses and picornaviruses from wild Pacific black ducks, Chestnut teals, Grey teals and Wood ducks sampled at multiple time points from a single location using metagenomics. We characterised 46 different avian parvoviruses belonging to three different genera Dependoparvovirus, Aveparvovirus and Chaphamaparvovirus, and 11 different avian picornaviruses tentatively belonging to four different genera Sicinivirus, Anativirus, Megrivirus and Aalivirus. Most of these viruses were genetically different from other currently known viruses from the NCBI dataset. The study showed that the abundance and number of avian picornaviruses and parvoviruses varied considerably throughout the year, with the high number of virus reads in some of the duck samples highly suggestive of an active infection at the time of sampling. The detection and characterisation of several parvoviruses and picornaviruses from the individual duck samples also suggests co-infection, which may lead to the emergence of novel viruses through possible recombination. Therefore, as new and emerging diseases evolve, it is relevant to explore and monitor potential animal reservoirs in their natural habitat.

This tutorial review provides a general account of the electrochemical behavior of quinones and their various applications. Quinone electrochemistry has been investigated for a long time due to its complexity. A simple point of view is developed that considers the relative stability of the reduced quinone species and the values of the first and second reduction potentials. The 9-membered square scheme in buffered aqueous solutions is explained and semiquinone radical stability is discussed in this context. Quinone redox reaction has also been employed in various studies. Diverse examples are presented under three broad categories defined by the roles of quinone: molecular tool for physical chemistry, versatile electron mediator, and charge storage for energy conversion devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Throughout history, infectious diseases have vastly impacted human civilization. After World War II, several health organizations were established, including the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) that led multiple campaigns to completely eradicate specific infectious diseases, such as smallpox, a highly infectious viral disease that was completely eradicated by 1980 via vaccination campaigns [[11]]. [Extracted from the article]

Influenza viruses continue to be a major public health threat due to the possible emergence of more virulent influenza virus strains resulting from dynamic changes in virus adaptability, consequent of functional mutations and antigenic drift in surface proteins, especially hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). In this study, we describe the genetic and evolutionary characteristics of H1N1, H3N2, and influenza B strains detected in severe cases of seasonal influenza in Thailand from 2018 to 2019. We genetically characterized seven A/H1N1 isolates, seven A/H3N2 isolates, and six influenza B isolates. Five of the seven A/H1N1 viruses were found to belong to clade 6B.1 and were antigenically similar to A/Switzerland/3330/2017 (H1N1), whereas two isolates belonged to clade 6B.1A1 and clustered with A/Brisbane/02/2018 (H1N1). Interestingly, we observed additional mutations at antigenic sites (S91R, S181T, T202I) as well as a unique mutation at a receptor binding site (S200P). Three-dimensional (3D) protein structure analysis of hemagglutinin protein reveals that this unique mutation may lead to the altered binding of the HA protein to a sialic acid receptor. A/H3N2 isolates were found to belong to clade 3C.2a2 and 3C.2a1b, clustering with A/Switzerland/8060/2017 (H3N2) and A/South Australia/34/2019 (H3N2), respectively. Amino acid sequence analysis revealed 10 mutations at antigenic sites including T144A/I, T151K, Q213R, S214P, T176K, D69N, Q277R, N137K, N187K, and E78K/G. All influenza B isolates in this study belong to the Victoria lineage. Five out of six isolates belong to clade 1A3-DEL, which relate closely to B/Washington/02/2009, with one isolate lacking the three amino acid deletion on the HA segment at position K162, N163, and D164. In comparison to the B/Colorado/06/2017, which is the representative of influenza B Victoria lineage vaccine strain, these substitutions include G129D, G133R, K136E, and V180R for HA protein. Importantly, the susceptibility to oseltamivir of influenza B isolates, but not A/H1N1 and A/H3N2 isolates, were reduced as assessed by the phenotypic assay. This study demonstrates the importance of monitoring genetic variation in influenza viruses regarding how acquired mutations could be associated with an improved adaptability for efficient transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exactly one year ago, between February and March 2020, the COVID-19 infection went from an epidemic confined to China to a worldwide pandemic that was particularly lethal in Italy. This study examined the media accounts during that period by analysing the representation of death-related constructs in Corriere della Sera, the most widely read newspaper in Italy. A textual and thematic analysis of articles published between period A (epidemic: 23 January–22 February 2020) and period B (pandemic: 23 February–31 March 2020) was conducted using Nvivo-11. A total of 141 articles comprising 48,524 words were collected. The most utilised words and meanings linked to COVID-19 were computed. In the rank distribution, 'China' and 'virus' were the terms most frequently used in both periods. The terms 'death' and 'dead' were completely absent in period A and appeared in the 535th position in period B. The term 'dead' was used primarily to indicate the number of deceased. From a Terror Management Theory perspective, it is possible that the minimal reference to death-related issues was a reflection of death denial and a manifestation of efforts to deny death to manage terror. These findings highlight the ambiguities and ambivalence surrounding any issue pertaining to death; on the one side, undue alarmism may provoke exaggerated reactions, such as moral panic, while on the other denial-based messages that minimise references to mortality may reduce safe behaviour during a pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza A Viruses (IAV) in domestic swine (IAV-S) are associated with sporadic zoonotic transmission at the human–animal interface. Previous pandemic IAVs originated from animals, which emphasizes the importance of characterizing human immunity against the increasingly diverse IAV-S. We analyzed serum samples from healthy human donors (n = 153) using hemagglutination-inhibition (HAI) assay to assess existing serologic protection against a panel of contemporary IAV-S isolated from swine in the United States (n = 11). Age-specific seroprotection rates (SPR), which are the proportion of individuals with HAI ≥ 1:40, corresponded with lower or moderate pandemic risk classifications for the multiple IAV-S examined (one H1-δ1, one H1-δ2, three H3-IVA, one H3-IVB, one H3-IVF). Individuals born between 2004 and 2013 had SPRs of 0% for the five classified H3 subtype IAV-S, indicating youth may be particularly predisposed to infection with these viruses. Expansion of existing immunologic gaps over time could increase likelihood of future IAV-S spillover to humans and facilitate subsequent sustained human-to-human transmission resulting in disease outbreaks with pandemic potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Live-attenuated vaccines (LAV) represent one of the most important medical innovations in human history. In the past three centuries, LAV have saved hundreds of millions of lives, and will continue to do so for many decades to come. Interestingly, the most successful LAVs, such as the smallpox vaccine, the measles vaccine, and the yellow fever vaccine, have been isolated and/or developed in a purely empirical manner without any understanding of the immunological mechanisms they trigger. Today, the mechanisms governing potent LAV immunogenicity and long-term induced protective immunity continue to be elusive, and therefore hamper the rational design of innovative vaccine strategies. A serious roadblock to understanding LAV-induced immunity has been the lack of suitable and cost-effective animal models that can accurately mimic human immune responses. In the last two decades, human-immune system mice (HIS mice), i.e., mice engrafted with components of the human immune system, have been instrumental in investigating the life-cycle and immune responses to multiple human-tropic pathogens. However, their use in LAV research has remained limited. Here, we discuss the strong potential of LAVs as tools to enhance our understanding of human immunity and review the past, current and future contributions of HIS mice to this endeavor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza A viruses (IAV) have been a major public health threat worldwide, and options for antiviral therapy become increasingly limited with the emergence of drug-resisting virus strains. New and effective anti-IAV drugs, especially for highly pathogenic influenza, with different modes of action, are urgently needed. The influenza virus glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA) plays critical roles in the early stage of virus infection, including receptor binding and membrane fusion, making it a potential target for the development of anti-influenza drugs. In this study, we show that OA-10, a newly synthesized triterpene out of 11 oleanane-type derivatives, exhibited significant antiviral activity against four different subtypes of IAV (H1N1, H5N1, H9N2 and H3N2) replications in A549 cell cultures with EC50 ranging from 6.7 to 19.6 μM and a negligible cytotoxicity (CC50 > 640 μM). It inhibited acid-induced hemolysis in a dose-dependent manner, with an IC50 of 26 µM, and had a weak inhibition on the adsorption of H5 HA to chicken erythrocytes at higher concentrations (≥40 µM). Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis showed that OA-10 interacted with HA in a dose-dependent manner with the equilibrium dissociation constants (KD) of the interaction of 2.98 × 10−12 M. Computer-aided molecular docking analysis suggested that OA-10 might bind to the cavity in HA stem region which is known to undergo significant rearrangement during membrane fusion. Our results demonstrate that OA-10 inhibits H5N1 IAV replication mainly by blocking the conformational changes of HA2 subunit required for virus fusion with endosomal membrane. These findings suggest that OA-10 could serve as a lead for further development of novel virus entry inhibitors to prevent and treat IAV infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) for CO2‐facilitated separation were prepared by incorporating different surface‐modified multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in a fixed carrier membrane material. Polymer containing amino groups, poly(vinylalcohol‐co‐vinylamine) (VA‐co‐VAm) was synthesized as polymeric matrix. MWCNTs as well as MWCNTs surface‐modified with OH and NH2 were applied as nanofillers. The physical property, chemical structure, and membrane morphology were characterized by FT‐IR, TG, XRD, DSC, CA, XPS, and SEM. The effects of content, functional group, temperature, and pressure on gas permselectivity were studied. Results show that the incorporation of nanofillers can effectively restrict the polymer chain packing and lead to low crystallinity. The MMMs exhibited higher CO2 permselectivity than the pure polymeric membrane. For all the MMMs, the CO2 permeance and selectivity increased with MWCNTs contents to a maximum and then decreased. MWCNT‐NH2 can be regarded as the most effective nanofiller. MMMs with 2.0 wt % MWCNT‐NH2 displayed the highest CO2 permeance of 132 GPU and CO2/N2 selectivity of 74. Both CO2 permeance and selectivity were decreased with feed gas pressure and temperature. The membrane exhibited good stability in the testing with the binary gas mixtures of CO2/N2 for 110 h under 0.54 MPa. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019, 136, 47848. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intramolecular electronic communications of molecular wires play a crucial role for developing molecular devices. In the present work, we describe different degrees of intramolecular electronic communications in the redox processes of three ubiquinone-based biomolecular wires (Bis-CoQ0s) evaluated by electrochemistry and Density Functional Theory (DFT) methods in different solvents. We found that the bridges linkers have a significant effect on the electronic communications between the two peripheral ubiquinone moieties and solvents effects are limited and mostly depend on the nature of solvents. The DFT calculations for the first time indicate the intensity of the electronic communications during the redox processes rely on the molecular orbital elements VL for electron transfer (half of the energy splitting of the LUMO and LUMO+1), which is could be affected by the bridges linkers. The DFT calculations also demonstrates the effect of solvents on the latter two-electron transfer of Bis-CoQ0s is more significant than the former two electrons transfer as the observed electrochemical behaviors of three Bis-CoQ0s. In addition, the electrochemistry and theoretical calculations reveal the intramolecular electronic communications vary in the four-electron redox processes of three Bis-CoQ0s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]