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Current approaches to treating multiple sclerosis aim at controlling disease activity. Despite the variety of agents that have proven their effectiveness and were introduced in practice in the last decade, the use of the interferon β group remains relevant. The article presents clinical cases of long-term use of interferons β in treating multiple sclerosis.

Background: Fei-Yan-Qing-Hua decoction (FYQHD) is derived from the well-known Ma Xing Shi Gan decoction, which was documented in Zhang Zhong Jing’s “Treatise on Exogenous Febrile Disease” during the Han Dynasty. Although FYQHD has been used in the treatment of pneumonia and has demonstrated clinical efficacy for decades, the underlying mechanism by which FYQHD protects against influenza virus infection through modulation of gut flora remains unclear. Here, we examined the regulatory impacts of FYQHD on an influenza virus-infected mouse model and explored the mechanisms involved. Methods: An infectious mouse model was created by intranasal instillation of influenza A virus (IAV). The effectiveness of FYQHD was assessed through various measures, including weight loss, lung wet/dry ratio, oxidative stress levels, viral load in lung tissues, and intestinal injuries. Changes in gut microbiota and SCFA production were also examined. Results: The results showed that FYQHD significantly reduced viral load, increased the production of type I interferon (IFN-I), and restored the integrity of the intestinal barrier following IAV challenge. Additionally, FYQHD significantly corrected the dysbiosis of gut microbiota induced by influenza virus infection, enhancing the abundance of SCFA-producing bacteria and acetate production. However, the depletion of gut microbiota significantly attenuated the protective effects of FYQHD against influenza virus infection. In vitro, the antiviral effect of acetate was demonstrated through the upregulation of concentrations of IFN-β. Conclusion: FYQHD attenuates influenza virus-induced lung and intestinal injuries by boosting the host antiviral response through increasing the abundance of Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136 and Roseburia, along with elevated acetate levels. The study advances our understanding of the therapeutic mechanisms of FYQHD and provides a theoretical basis for the application of FYQHD in the treatment of influenza. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, type I interferon (IFN-α ve IFN-β) levels, viral load levels, the relationship between viral load and interferons, and the relationship between interferon levels and disease severity and mortality in patients with Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) were investigated. 100 patients diagnosed with CCHF between April-2010 and September-2011 and 74 healthy individuals were selected as control group. IFN-α ve in patient sera was analysed by IFN-β seviyeleri ELISA method and viral load levels were analysed by Real-Time PCR method. Individuals in the patient group were classified as severe (group1) and mild (group2) patients according to the criteria defined by Swanepoel et al. During the follow-up, 25 of the patients in the severe group died. Patients in the severe group who died were classified as group1a and patients who survived were classified as group1b. INF-α ve β düzeyleri CCHF patients in the control group, group1 patients in group2 and control group was found to be significantly higher than the group (p0.05). Viral load levels in group1a were statistically significant compared to group1b and group2 (p0.05). The cut off value for viral load was 8445500 copies/ml, AUC was 0.870 and statistically significant (p

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Glucocorticoids potently inhibit expression of many inflammatory mediators, and have been widely used to treat both acute and chronic inflammatory diseases for more than seventy years. However, they can have several unwanted effects, amongst which immunosuppression is one of the most common. Here we used microarrays and proteomic approaches to characterise the effect of dexamethasone (a synthetic glucocorticoid) on the responses of primary mouse macrophages to a potent pro-inflammatory agonist, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Gene ontology analysis revealed that dexamethasone strongly impaired the lipopolysaccharide-induced antimicrobial response, which is thought to be driven by an autocrine feedback loop involving the type I interferon IFNβ. Indeed, dexamethasone strongly and dose-dependently inhibited the expression of IFNβ by LPS- activated macrophages. Unbiased proteomic data also revealed an inhibitory effect of dexamethasone on the IFNβ-dependent program of gene expression, with strong down-regulation of several interferon-induced antimicrobial factors. Surprisingly, dexamethasone also inhibited the expression of several antimicrobial genes in response to direct stimulation of macrophages with IFNβ. We tested a number of hypotheses based on previous publications, but found that no single mechanism could account for more than a small fraction of the broad suppressive impact of dexamethasone on macrophage type I interferon signaling, underlining the complexity of this pathway. Preliminary experiments indicated that dexamethasone exerted similar inhibitory effects on primary human monocyte-derived or alveolar macrophages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glucocorticoids potently inhibit expression of many inflammatory mediators, and have been widely used to treat both acute and chronic inflammatory diseases for more than seventy years. However, they can have several unwanted effects, amongst which immunosuppression is one of the most common. Here we used microarrays and proteomic approaches to characterise the effect of dexamethasone (a synthetic glucocorticoid) on the responses of primary mouse macrophages to a potent pro-inflammatory agonist, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Gene ontology analysis revealed that dexamethasone strongly impaired the lipopolysaccharide-induced antimicrobial response, which is thought to be driven by an autocrine feedback loop involving the type I interferon IFNβ. Indeed, dexamethasone strongly and dose-dependently inhibited the expression of IFNβ by LPS-activated macrophages. Unbiased proteomic data also revealed an inhibitory effect of dexamethasone on the IFNβ-dependent program of gene expression, with strong down-regulation of several interferon-induced antimicrobial factors. Surprisingly, dexamethasone also inhibited the expression of several antimicrobial genes in response to direct stimulation of macrophages with IFNβ. We tested a number of hypotheses based on previous publications, but found that no single mechanism could account for more than a small fraction of the broad suppressive impact of dexamethasone on macrophage type I interferon signaling, underlining the complexity of this pathway. Preliminary experiments indicated that dexamethasone exerted similar inhibitory effects on primary human monocyte-derived or alveolar macrophages.

Viral infections are associated with increased incidence of severe sepsis. Particularly during the early stages, type I interferons (IFNs) are known mediators of detrimental effects. However, the functional role of early interferon β (IFNβ) and its cellular source during sepsis in the context of preexisting viral infections has not been defined. Using the colon ascendens stent peritonitis (CASP) model, we demonstrate that IFNβ-/- and type I IFN receptor (IFNAR1)-/- mice were less susceptible to sepsis after pre-stimulation with the viral mimetic poly(I:C). Wild type (WT) mice treated with poly(I:C) exhibited altered expression patterns of TNF and IL-12p40 during CASP which were dependent on IFNβ or IFNAR1, suggesting a mechanism for the increased sepsis susceptibility of WT mice. Using a double cytokine reporter mouse model, we present novel data on the simultaneous expression of IFNβ and IL-12p40 on a single cell level during polymicrobial sepsis in vivo. Conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) were identified as primary source of IFNβ and the protective cytokine IL-12p40 after CASP surgery irrespective of poly(I:C) pre-stimulation. These data demonstrated that if polymicrobial sepsis is preceded by a viral infection, IFNβ and IL-12p40 are expressed by polyfunctional cDCs suggesting that these cells can play both detrimental and beneficial roles during sepsis development.

Interferon-beta (IFN-β) for Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is turning 30. The COVID-19 pandemic rejuvenated the interest in interferon biology in health and disease, opening translational opportunities beyond neuroinflammation. The antiviral properties of this molecule are in accord with the hypothesis of a viral etiology of MS, for which a credible culprit has been identified in the Epstein-Barr Virus. Likely, IFNs are crucial in the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection, as demonstrated by inherited and acquired impairments of the interferon response that predispose to a severe COVID-19 course. Accordingly, IFN-β exerted protection against SARS-CoV-2 in people with MS (pwMS). In this viewpoint, we summarize the evidence on IFN-β mechanisms of action in MS with a focus on its antiviral properties, especially against EBV. We synopsize the role of IFNs in COVID-19 and the opportunities and challenges of IFN-β usage for this condition. Finally, we leverage the lessons learned in the pandemic to suggest a role of IFN-β in long-COVID-19 and in special MS subpopulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interferon-beta (IFN-β) for Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is turning 30. The COVID-19 pandemic rejuvenated the interest in interferon biology in health and disease, opening translational opportunities beyond neuroinflammation. The antiviral properties of this molecule are in accord with the hypothesis of a viral etiology of MS, for which a credible culprit has been identified in the Epstein-Barr Virus. Likely, IFNs are crucial in the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection, as demonstrated by inherited and acquired impairments of the interferon response that predispose to a severe COVID-19 course. Accordingly, IFN-β exerted protection against SARS-CoV-2 in people with MS (pwMS). In this viewpoint, we summarize the evidence on IFN-β mechanisms of action in MS with a focus on its antiviral properties, especially against EBV. We synopsize the role of IFNs in COVID-19 and the opportunities and challenges of IFN-β usage for this condition. Finally, we leverage the lessons learned in the pandemic to suggest a role of IFN-β in long-COVID-19 and in special MS subpopulations.

Abstract Background Type I interferons are widely used in research applications and as biotherapeutics. Current assays used to measure interferon concentrations, such as plaque reduction assays and ELISA, are expensive, technically challenging, and may take days to provide results. We sought to develop a robust and rapid assay to determine interferon concentrations produced from transiently transfected cell cultures. Method Indirect quantification of recombinant interferon was evaluated using a novel bi-cistronic construct encoding the Foot-and-mouth disease virus 2A translational interrupter sequence to yield equimolar expression of Gaussia princeps luciferase and porcine interferon α. Direct quantification was evaluated by expression of a novel fusion protein comprised of Gaussia princeps luciferase and porcine type I interferon. Plasmids encoding constructs are transiently transfected into cell cultures and supernatant harvested for testing of luminescence, ELISA determined concentration, and anti-viral activity against vesicular stomatitis virus. Results Bi-cistronic constructs, utilized for indirect quantification, demonstrate both luciferase activity and anti-viral activity. Fusion proteins, utilized for direct quantification, retained secretion and luminescence however only the interferon α fusion protein had antiviral activity comparable to wildtype porcine interferon α. A strong linear correlation was observed between dilution and luminescence for all compounds over a dynamic range of concentrations. Conclusion The correlation of antiviral and luciferase activities demonstrated the utility of this approach, both direct and indirect, to rapidly determine recombinant interferon concentrations. Concentration can be determined over a more dynamic concentration range than available ELISA based assays using this methodology.

Aims: Pancreatic β-cell apoptosis may be involved in the onset and progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus, although its mechanism remains unclear. We previously demonstrated that macrophage-derived interferon (IFN) β induced X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis–associated factor 1 (XAF1) expression in β-cells and accelerated β-cell apoptosis in vitro. Here, we explored the effects of XAF1 on β-cell function and progression of diabetes in vivo. Methods: Pancreatic β-cell-selective XAF1 overexpressing (Xaf1 Tg) mice were generated. Xaf1 Tg mice and their wild-type (WT) littermates were fed either a normal diet or a 40% or 60% high-fat diet (HFD). The effects of β-cell XAF1 on β-cell apoptosis and exacerbation of diabetes were investigated. Results: Palmitic acid induced IFNβ expression in macrophages, and HFD intake promoted macrophage infiltration in pancreatic islets, both of which cooperatively upregulated XAF1 expression in mouse islets. Furthermore, HFD-fed Xaf1 Tg mice demonstrated increased β-cell apoptosis, lowered insulin expression, and impaired glucose tolerance compared with WT mice fed the same diet. These effects were more pronounced in the 60%HFD group than in the 40%HFD group. Conclusions: Pancreatic β-cell XAF1 expression was enhanced via HFD-induced, macrophage-derived IFNβ, which promoted β-cell apoptosis and led to a reduction in insulin secretion and progression of diabetes. To our knowledge, this is the first report to demonstrate an association between pancreatic β-cell XAF1 overexpression and exacerbation of diabetes, thus providing insight into the mechanism of β-cell mass reduction in diabetes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis (PHE), caused by a betacoronavirus named porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV), is a highly fatal disease of pigs characterized by nonsuppurative encephalitis. Activation of astrocytes is a hallmark of viral encephalomyelitis; however, the mechanism of PHEV-induced astrocyte activation is currently unknown. Based on mouse model, we show that PHEV infection led to astrogliosis in mouse brain and brain slice cultures (BSCs), as indicated by increased expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). PHEV can neither infect nor activate primary astrocytes in vitro , indicating that activation of astrocytes maybe mediated by factors secreted from viral infected neurons but not by direct viral infection of astrocytes. PHEV infection results in increased interferon (IFN) response in later stage, we thereafter focused on whether IFN-β can activate astrocytes after PHEV infection similar to other neurotropic viruses. IFN-β treatment resulted in both the upregulation of GFAP and activation-associated cytokines/chemokines in mouse primary astrocytes. Furthermore, the addition of IFN-β neutralization antibody prevented PHEV-infected mouse brain tissue homogenate from activating astrocytes. Taken together, IFN-β triggers the activation of astrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS) following PHEV infection. Further understanding of the role of activated astrocytes during PHEV infection may provide new insights for treatment this disease. • PHEV infection induces astrocytes activation in the mouse brain. • Factors intrinsic in the central nervous system are sufficient to activate astrocytes. • IFN-β produced in the brain following PHEV infection contributes to astrocytes activation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interferons (IFNs) mediate innate antiviral activity against many types of viruses, including influenza viruses. In light of their potential use as anti-influenza agents, we examined whether resistance to these host antiviral proteins can develop. We generated IFN-β-resistant variants of the A/California/04/09 (H1N1) virus by serial passage in a human airway epithelial cell line, Calu-3, under IFN-β selective pressure. The combination of specific mutations (i.e., L373I in PB1, K154E1, D222G1, I56V2, and V122I2 in HA, and M269I in NA) correlated with decreased ability of the virus to induce expression of IFN (IFNB1, IFNL1, and IFNL2/3) and IFN-stimulated genes (IFIT1, IFIT3, OAS1, IRF7, and MX1) by target respiratory epithelial cells. In addition, the IFN-induced mutations were associated with decreased HA binding affinity to α2,6 sialyl receptors, reduced NA enzyme catalytic activity, and decreased polymerase transcription activity. Our findings demonstrate that the mutations in the influenza HA, NA, and PB1 proteins induced by IFN-β selective pressure significantly increase viral ability to productively infect and replicate in host cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Type I interferons are widely used in research applications and as biotherapeutics. Current assays used to measure interferon concentrations, such as plaque reduction assays and ELISA, are expensive, technically challenging, and may take days to provide results. We sought to develop a robust and rapid assay to determine interferon concentrations produced from transiently transfected cell cultures. Method: Indirect quantification of recombinant interferon was evaluated using a novel bi-cistronic construct encoding the Foot-and-mouth disease virus 2A translational interrupter sequence to yield equimolar expression of Gaussia princeps luciferase and porcine interferon α. Direct quantification was evaluated by expression of a novel fusion protein comprised of Gaussia princeps luciferase and porcine type I interferon. Plasmids encoding constructs are transiently transfected into cell cultures and supernatant harvested for testing of luminescence, ELISA determined concentration, and anti-viral activity against vesicular stomatitis virus. Results: Bi-cistronic constructs, utilized for indirect quantification, demonstrate both luciferase activity and anti-viral activity. Fusion proteins, utilized for direct quantification, retained secretion and luminescence however only the interferon α fusion protein had antiviral activity comparable to wildtype porcine interferon α. A strong linear correlation was observed between dilution and luminescence for all compounds over a dynamic range of concentrations. Conclusion: The correlation of antiviral and luciferase activities demonstrated the utility of this approach, both direct and indirect, to rapidly determine recombinant interferon concentrations. Concentration can be determined over a more dynamic concentration range than available ELISA based assays using this methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The NS1 protein of the influenza A virus plays a critical role in regulating several biological processes in cells, including the type I interferon (IFN) response. We previously profiled the cellular factors that interact with the NS1 protein of influenza A virus and found that the NS1 protein interacts with proteins involved in RNA splicing/ processing, cell cycle regulation, and protein targeting processes, including 14-3-3ε. Since 14-3-3ε plays an important role in retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) translocation to mitochondrial antiviral-signaling protein (MAVS) to activate type I IFN expression, the interaction of the NS1 and 14-3-3ε proteins may prevent the RIG-I-mediated IFN response. In this study, we confirmed that the 14-3-3ε protein interacts with the N-terminal domain of the NS1 protein and that the NS1 protein inhibits RIG-I-mediated IFN- b promoter activation in 14-3-3ε-overexpressing cells. In addition, our results showed that knocking down 14-3-3ε can reduce IFN- b expression elicited by influenza A virus and enhance viral replication. Furthermore, we found that threonine in the 49th amino acid position of the NS1 protein plays a role in the interaction with 14-3- 3ε. Influenza A virus expressing C terminus-truncated NS1 with a T49A mutation dramatically increases IFN-β mRNA in infected cells and causes slower replication than that of virus without the T-to-A mutation. Collectively, this study demonstrates that 14-3-3ε is involved in influenza A virus-initiated IFN-β expression and that the interaction of the NS1 protein and 14-3-3ε may be one of the mechanisms for inhibiting type I IFN activation during influenza A virus infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Infectious organisms and damage of cells can activate inflammasomes, which mediate tissue inflammation and adaptive immunity. These mechanisms evolved to curb the spread of microbes and to induce repair of the damaged tissue. Chronic activation of inflammasomes, however, contributes to non‐resolving inflammatory responses that lead to immuno‐pathologies. Inflammasome‐activated cells undergo an inflammatory cell death associated with the release of potent pro‐inflammatory cytokines and poorly characterized extracellular vesicles (EVs). Since inflammasome‐induced EVs could signal inflammasome pathway activation in patients with chronic inflammation and modulate bystander cell activation, we performed a systems analysis of the ribonucleic acid (RNA) content and function of two EV classes. We show that EVs released from inflammasome‐activated macrophages carry a specific RNA signature and contain interferon β (IFNβ). EV‐associated IFNβ induces an interferon signature in bystander cells and results in dampening of NLRP3 inflammasome responses. EVs could, therefore, serve as biomarkers for inflammasome activation and act to prevent systemic hyper‐inflammatory states by restricting NLRP3 activation in bystander cells.

Type I interferons (IFN), a family of cytokines widely expressed in various tissues, play important roles in anti-infection immunity. Nevertheless, it is not known whether Brucella spp. could interfere with IFN-I production induced by other pathogens. This study investigated the regulatory roles of Brucella outer membrane protein (Omp)25 on the IFN-I signaling pathway and found that Omp25 inhibited the production of IFN-β and its downstream IFN-stimulated genes induced by various DNA viruses or IFN-stimulatory DNA in human, murine, porcine, bovine, and ovine monocyte/macrophages or peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Brucella Omp25 suppressed the phosphorylation of stimulator of IFN genes (STINGs) and IFN regulatory factor 3 and nuclear translocation of phosphorylated IFN regulatory factor 3 in pseudorabies virus- or herpes simplex virus-1-infected murine, human, or porcine macrophages. Furthermore, we found that Brucella Omp25 promoted cyclic guanosine monophosphate–adenosine monophosphate synthase (cGAS) degradation via the proteasome-dependent pathway, resulting in a decreased cyclic guanosine monophosphate–adenosine monophosphate production and downstream signaling activation upon DNA virus infection or IFN-stimulatory DNA stimulation. Mapping the predominant function domain of Omp25 showed that the amino acids 161 to 184 of Omp25 were required for Omp25-induced cGAS degradation, among which five amino acid residues (R176, Y179, R180, Y181, and Y184) were required for the inhibitory effect of Omp25 on IFN-β induction. Altogether, our results demonstrated that Brucella Omp25 inhibits cGAS STING signaling pathway-induced IFN-β via facilitating the ubiquitin–proteasome-dependent degradation of cGAS in various mammalian monocyte/macrophages.

Infectious organisms and damage of cells can activate inflammasomes, which mediate tissue inflammation and adaptive immunity. These mechanisms evolved to curb the spread of microbes and to induce repair of the damaged tissue. Chronic activation of inflammasomes, however, contributes to non‐resolving inflammatory responses that lead to immuno‐pathologies. Inflammasome‐activated cells undergo an inflammatory cell death associated with the release of potent pro‐inflammatory cytokines and poorly characterized extracellular vesicles (EVs). Since inflammasome‐induced EVs could signal inflammasome pathway activation in patients with chronic inflammation and modulate bystander cell activation, we performed a systems analysis of the ribonucleic acid (RNA) content and function of two EV classes. We show that EVs released from inflammasome‐activated macrophages carry a specific RNA signature and contain interferon β (IFNβ). EV‐associated IFNβ induces an interferon signature in bystander cells and results in dampening of NLRP3 inflammasome responses. EVs could, therefore, serve as biomarkers for inflammasome activation and act to prevent systemic hyper‐inflammatory states by restricting NLRP3 activation in bystander cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Type I interferons (IFN), a family of cytokines widely expressed in various tissues, play important roles in anti-infection immunity. Nevertheless, it is not known whether Brucella spp. could interfere with IFN-I production induced by other pathogens. This study investigated the regulatory roles of Brucella outer membrane protein (Omp)25 on the IFN-I signaling pathway and found that Omp25 inhibited the production of IFN-β and its downstream IFN-stimulated genes induced by various DNA viruses or IFN-stimulatory DNA in human, murine, porcine, bovine, and ovine monocyte/macrophages or peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Brucella Omp25 suppressed the phosphorylation of stimulator of IFN genes (STINGs) and IFN regulatory factor 3 and nuclear translocation of phosphorylated IFN regulatory factor 3 in pseudorabies virus- or herpes simplex virus-1-infected murine, human, or porcine macrophages. Furthermore, we found that Brucella Omp25 promoted cyclic guanosine monophosphate–adenosine monophosphate synthase (cGAS) degradation via the proteasome-dependent pathway, resulting in a decreased cyclic guanosine monophosphate–adenosine monophosphate production and downstream signaling activation upon DNA virus infection or IFN-stimulatory DNA stimulation. Mapping the predominant function domain of Omp25 showed that the amino acids 161 to 184 of Omp25 were required for Omp25-induced cGAS degradation, among which five amino acid residues (R176, Y179, R180, Y181, and Y184) were required for the inhibitory effect of Omp25 on IFN-β induction. Altogether, our results demonstrated that Brucella Omp25 inhibits cGAS STING signaling pathway-induced IFN-β via facilitating the ubiquitin–proteasome-dependent degradation of cGAS in various mammalian monocyte/macrophages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly malignant disease, where even surgical resection and aggressive chemotherapy produce dismal outcomes. Immunotherapy is a promising alternative to conventional treatments, possessing the ability to elicit T cell-mediated killing of tumor cells and prevent disease recurrence. Immunotherapeutic approaches thus far have seen limited success in PDAC due to a poorly immunogenic and exceedingly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, which is enriched with dysfunctional and immunosuppressed antigen-presenting cells (APCs). We developed a highly potent immunostimulatory nanoparticle (immuno-NP) to activate and expand APCs in the tumor and induce local secretion of interferon β (IFNβ), which is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that plays a major role in APC recruitment. The effectiveness of the immuno-NP stems from its dual cargo of two synergistic immune modulators consisting of an agonist of the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway and an agonist of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway. We show the functional synergy of the dual-agonist cargo can be tweaked by adjusting the ratio of the two agonists loaded in the immuno-NP, leading to an increase in IFNβ production (11-fold) compared to any single agonist immuno-NP variant. Using the orthotopic murine Panc02 model of PDAC, we show that systemic administration allowed immuno-NPs to deposit into the perivascular regions of the tumor, which coincided with the APC-rich tumor areas leading to predominant uptake of immuno-NPs by APCs. The immuno-NPs were effectively taken up by a significant portion of dendritic cells in the tumor (>56%). This led to a significant expansion of APCs, resulting in an 11.5-fold increase of dendritic cells and infiltration of lymphocytes throughout the pancreatic tumor compared to untreated animals. Unlabelled Image • Nanoparticle is loaded with two potent innate immune agonists. • The dual-agonist cargo provides remarkable functional synergy. • Systemic delivery enables uptake by APCs in perivascular regions of tumors. • Significant activation and expansion of APCs in pancreatic tumor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyclic dinucleotides (CDNs) are known to activate stimulator of interferon genes (STING) and induce type I interferon responses, therefor possess great potentials to be of immunotherapeutic value for cancers and infectious diseases. However, the existence of different single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of human STING (hSTING) gene poses an obstacle to achieve broad-spectrum activation by CDNs. We reported here the design and synthesis of a total of 36 CDNs, representing all structural variations, that contain four bases (A, G, C, U) and two linkage directions (2′-5′-linked and 3′-5′-linked phosphodiester). Through systematic evaluation of IFN-β induction with a dual-luciferase reporter assay, we discovered that wild type hSTING and two isoforms (HAQ and AQ) showed strong response while hSTING-R232H and R293Q exhibited the relatively weak response to CDNs stimulation. For the first time, we found that the c[G(2′,5′)U(2′,5′)] showed excellent activity against all five hSTING variants even equivalent to the endogenous ligand c[G(2′,5′)A(3′,5′)]. Furthermore, we have also demonstrated that 3′-3′ CDNs with two 3′-5′ phosphodiesters showed higher serum and hydrolase stability than 2′-2′ CDNs with two 2′-5′ phosphodiesters and 2′-3′ CDNs with one 2′-5′ and one 3′-5′ phosphodiester. It is very interesting to note that 2′-2′ CDNs has been found for the first time to show strong activity. These findings will stimulate our exploration for the new functional role of CDNs, and provide guidelines to design CDNs based hSTING targeted drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Interferon β (IFN- β) has been proved as an effective treatment for relapsing-remitting type of multiple sclerosis (MS), however not all patients respond to this treatment. The aims of the present study were to assess the changes in number and volume of demyelinating plaques on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as surrogate markers for response to IFN-β treatment in patients with relapsing-remitting MS after one year of follow-up. Methods: 41 patients with relapsing-remitting MS were recruited and IFN β-1-a treatment was started for them. Brain MRI were obtained at baseline and after one year of treatment. the number of plaques (NP) and volume of plaques (VP) were determined. The criterion for response to treatment on MRI was defined as 50% decrease in mean NP or VP. Findings: There was a significant decrease in the NP and VP after treatment (P < 0.001). The cut-off point defined for analyzing the data was 50% decrease in mean NP or VP.The specificity of NP and VP as two criteria was the same and equals to 100%. The sensitivity of the NP was 65.5% and that for VP was 90.6%. Furthermore, if the cut-off point for the NP is set at 10%, the sensitivity of NP as a criterion will be the same as that of VP (90.6%). Conclusion: These data suggest that both the NP and VP could be two reliable imaging criteria for the assessment of response to treatment on MRI. However, the VP was more accurate than the NP.

Objective: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a multifactorial chronic disease that affects the central nervous system (CNS). Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a central role in cytokine production after pathogen- and danger-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs and DAMPs) and contribute to CNS damage in MS patients. Here, we evaluated the effects of interferon (IFN)-β treatment in TLR2 and TLR4-dependent cytokine production and mRNA expression in whole-blood cell cultures from MS patients. Methods: We evaluated cytokine production by ELISA from whole-blood cell culture supernatants and mRNA expression by real-time polymerase chain reaction in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Results: In patients treated with IFN-β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production after exposure to TLR2 agonist (Pam3Cys) was lower than in healthy controls and untreated MS patients. However, IFN-β treatment had no significant effect on TNF-α production after TLR4 agonist (LPS) stimulation. On the other hand, interleukin (IL)-10 production was increased in TLR4- but not in TLR2-stimulated whole-blood cell culture from MS patients under IFN-β treatment when compared to the controls. No differences in TNF-α or IL-10 mRNA expression in PBMCs from healthy controls and untreated or treated MS patients were detected, although PBMCs from treated patients presented higher levels of IL-32γ mRNA than those from controls. Conclusions: Our data suggest that IFN-β treatment alters the TLR-dependent immune response of PBMCs from MS patients. This may contribute to the beneficial effects of IFN-β treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • As both teriflunomide and IFN β are similar in terms of effectiveness in the treatment of patients with RRMS, evaluation of safety profile can help the clinician to choose the most appropriate therapy. • All MS medications target the immune system and therefore have the theoretical potential to predispose patients to infection, to reduce surveillance of neoplasms, or to induce autoimmune disease, among other potential adverse effects. • Liver toxicity might be a reason for discontinuation of any drug prescribed, as it could potentially be a life-threating complication. • Elevated ALT is an indication of liver impairment particularly in acute cases, as drug-related liver failure, and is preferred over AST, as the former is more liver-specific while the latter is also produced by other tissues and can be increased in extrahepatic diseases. Abstract Objectives To compare the liver safety profile of interferon β (IFN β) and teriflunomide in patients with multiple sclerosis. Methods A network meta-analysis was carried out following the Cochrane Collaboration methodology. All trials comparing all types of IFN β with teriflunomide, or disease-modifying drugs, or placebo in RRMS were included. An indirect comparison network meta-analysis within a Bayesian framework with STATA (version 13.0) was done for this study. Results The database searches yielded 284 titles, with 15 records as duplicates. One study was identified by manually searching. Thirteen articles were included in the systematic review. Twelve studies compared IFN β (4203 patients) vs another DMT. Four studies evaluated the effectiveness and safety of teriflunomide (906 patients) vs another DMT. Six studies reported drug-induced liver injury as per the Hy's Law. However, only one study had a direct comparison and reported no cases of liver toxicity in either group, so it was not possible to estimate the OR. The indirect comparisons metanalysis shows that there was no statistically-significant difference between teriflunomide and IFN β (OR 1.09, 95% CI 0.02–2.16). Conclusions There were no significant difference when comparing IFN β and teriflunomide in terms of liver failure or elevation of transaminases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Human myxovirus resistance protein B (hMXB) is a restriction factor of HIV-1 that also inhibits a variety of retroviruses. However, hMXB is not antiviral against equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV). We show here that equine MX2 (eMX2) potently restricts EIAV in vitro. Additionally, eMX2 inhibits HIV-1 and other lentiviruses, including murine leukemia virus. Previously, it was reported that hMXB repression is reduced in hMXB Δ1–25, but not in GTP-binding mutant K131A and GTP-hydrolysis mutant T151A. In contrast to this phenomenon, our study indicates that eMX2 restriction is not diminished in eMX2 Δ1–25, but is in eMX2 K127A and T147A, which correspond to hMXB K131A and T151A, respectively. Thus, eMX2 may inhibit retroviral replication by a novel mechanism that differs from that of hMXB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is still unclear whether toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling and serum levels of inflammatory markers in metabolically unhealthy abdominally obese (MUAO) are due to their obesity and/or their metabolic state. We hypothesized that abdominal obesity is an important mediator of the association of metabolic state with TLR signaling and serum inflammatory markers. Therefore, in this case-control study, we compared the expression levels of TLR4 and Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain containing adaptor protein-inducing interferon β (TRIF) and serum concentrations of interferon β and lipoprotein-binding protein (LBP) in metabolically healthy abdominally obese (MHAO) and MUAO individuals. Basal blood samples from 65 abdominally obese subjects with waist circumference (WC) of at least 95 cm were collected to determine serum metabolic parameters, IFNβ, and LBP. Those with 3 or more metabolic alterations were defined as MUAO (n = 34), and those having 2 or less were classified as MHAO (n = 31). Furthermore, messenger RNA (mRNA) was isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells. TLR4 and TRIF gene expression assay was performed using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. There were significant differences in serum fasting blood sugar ( P  = .017), triglyceride ( P  < .001), cholesterol ( P  = .002), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( P  = .034) between the MUAO and MHAO groups, whereas no significant difference was observed in the expression ratio of TLR4 and TRIF mRNA and serum levels of IFNβ and LBP. However, a significant correlation was noticed between mRNA expression levels of TLR4 and TRIF ( r  = 0.50, P  < .001) and serum IFNβ and LBP ( r  = 0.70, P < . 001). It is concluded that the expression levels of TLR4 and TRIF as well as serum IFNβ and LBP are more related to abdominal obesity than to metabolic health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the central region of the mammalian major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a complement gene cluster that codes for constituents of complement C3 convertases (C2, factor B and C4). Complement activation drives the humoral effector functions for immune response. Sandwiched between the genes for serine proteinase factor B and anchor protein C4 are four less known but critically important genes coding for essential functions related to metabolism and surveillance of RNA during the transcriptional and translational processes of gene expression. These four genes are NELF-E (RD), SKIV2L (SKI2W), DXO (DOM3Z) and STK19 (RP1 or G11) and dubbed as NSDK. NELF-E is the subunit E of negative elongation factor responsible for promoter proximal pause of transcription. SKIV2L is the RNA helicase for cytoplasmic exosomes responsible for degradation of de-polyadenylated mRNA and viral RNA. DXO is a powerful enzyme with pyro-phosphohydrolase activity towards 5′ triphosphorylated RNA, decapping and exoribonuclease activities of faulty nuclear RNA molecules. STK19 is a nuclear kinase that phosphorylates RNA-binding proteins during transcription. STK19 is also involved in DNA repair during active transcription and in nuclear signal transduction. The genetic, biochemical and functional properties for NSDK in the MHC largely stay as a secret for many immunologists. Here we briefly review the roles of (a) NELF-E on transcriptional pausing; (b) SKIV2L on turnover of deadenylated or expired RNA 3′→5′ through the Ski-exosome complex, and modulation of inflammatory response initiated by retinoic acid-inducible gene 1-like receptor (RLR) sensing of viral infections; (c) DXO on quality control of RNA integrity through recognition of 5′ caps and destruction of faulty adducts in 5′→3′ fashion; and (d) STK19 on nuclear protein phosphorylations. There is compelling evidence that a dysregulation or a deficiency of a NSDK gene would cause a malignant, immunologic or digestive disease.

In a previous study, we demonstrated that porcine cyclic GMP–AMP (cGAMP) synthase (cGAS) catalyzes cGAMP production and is an important DNA sensor for the pseudorabies virus (PRV)-induced activation of interferon β (IFN-β). Ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1) has recently been identified as the hydrolase of cGAMP in rodents, but its role in porcine cells is not clear. Our recent study demonstrated that porcine ENPP1 is responsible for the homeostasis of cGAMP and is critical for PRV infection. Porcine ENPP1 mRNA is predominantly expressed in muscle. PRV infection was enhanced by ENPP1 overexpression and attenuated by silencing of ENPP1. During PRV infection, the activation of IFN-β and NF-κB was reduced in ENPP1 overexpressed cells and promoted in ENPP1 knockdown cells. Investigation of the molecular mechanisms of ENPP1 during PRV infection showed that ENPP1 hydrolyzed cGAMP in PRV-infected or cGAMP-transfected cells and inhibited IRF3 phosphorylation, reducing IFN-β secretion. These results, combined with those for porcine cGAS, demonstrate that ENPP1 acts coordinately with cGAS to maintain the reservoir of cGAMP and participates in PRV infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nucleus accumbens‑associated protein 1 (NAC1), a transcriptional co‑regulator, is overexpressed in advanced prostate cancer. However, the NAC1‑regulated transcriptome has not been completely explored. In the present study, the functional silencing of NAC1 blocked the migration of prostate cancer cells and suppress osteoclastogenesis. The present study also determined that NAC1 was overexpressed in the highly aggressive prostate cancer cell lines PC‑3, DU‑145 and LNCaP. NAC1 small interfering RNA treatment of DU‑145 cells decreased cell migration, but interestingly had no significant effects on cell proliferation. Furthermore, microarray analysis showed that a group of genes may be associated with the development of prostate cancer after NAC1 knockdown, including interferon‑β (IFNβ), which is reported to be involved in osteoclastogenesis, an important factor affecting bone metastasis. The mechanisms of NAC1 function were further explored by co‑culture studies using PC‑3 and RAW264.7 osteoclast precursor cells, which demonstrated that silencing NAC1 downregulated the genes associated with the activation of osteoclasts. Furthermore, it was revealed that NAC1 had the ability to affect the release of IFNβ into the extracellular environment. Together, these findings indicated that NAC1 promoted cell migration, and that NAC1 may have a key role in osteoclastogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Metabolic endotoxemia has been implicated in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. In addition to adipose tissue inflammation, inflammatory cell infiltration is also observed in islets, although its effect on islets is largely unknown. We hypothesized that macrophage infiltration into islets leads to impairment of a or β cell function, which ultimately act to exacerbate the pathophysiology of diabetes. Gene expression in a murine a cell line, aTC1, and β cell line, βTC6, was investigated by DNA microarray after co-culturing the cells with a murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7, in the presence or absence of bacterial endotoxin. Among the genes showing highly upregulated expression, genes specifically upregulated only in β cells were evaluated to determine the roles of the gene products on the cellular function of β cells. In both a and β cells, expression of type I interferon-responsive genes was highly upregulated upon endotoxin stimulation. Among these genes, expression of the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (Xiap)-associated factor 1 (Xaf1) gene, which is associated with the induction of apoptosis, was specifically enhanced in β cells by endotoxin stimulation. This upregulation appeared to be mediated by macrophage- derived interferon β (IFNβ), as endotoxin-stimulated macrophages produced higher amounts of IFNβ, and exogenous addition of IFNβ into βTC6 cultures resulted in increased Xaf1 protein production and cleaved caspase 3, which accelerated β-cell apoptosis. Macrophages activated by metabolic endotoxemia infiltrated into islets and produced IFNβ, which induced β-cell apoptosis by increasing the expression of Xaf1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway is a major mediator of inflammation following stimulation with >45 bp double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). Herein, we identify a class of ∼20–40 bp small cytosolic dsDNA (scDNA) molecules that compete with long dsDNA (200–1,500 bp herring testis [HT]-DNA) for binding to cGAS, thus repressing HT-DNA-induced cGAS activation. The scDNA promotes cGAS and Beclin-1 interaction, releasing Rubicon, a negative regulator of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase class III (PI3KC3), from the Beclin-1-PI3KC3 complex. This leads to PI3KC3 activation and induces autophagy, causing degradation of STING and long cytosolic dsDNA. Moreover, DNA damage decreases, and autophagy inducers increase scDNA levels. scDNA transfection and treatment with autophagy inducers attenuate DNA damage-induced cGAS activation. Thus, scDNA molecules serve as effective brakes for cGAS activation, preventing excessive inflammatory cytokine production following DNA damage. Our findings may have therapeutic implications for cytosolic DNA-associated inflammatory diseases. [Display omitted] • Small cytosolic dsDNA (scDNA) molecules of 20–40 bp exist in human and mouse cells • scDNA represses cGAS activation by competing with long dsDNA and induces autophagy • Downregulation of scDNA facilitates cGAS-STING activation following DNA damage • Autophagy inducers upregulate scDNA and repress DNA damage-induced cGAS activation Liu et al. identify a class of 20–40 bp small cytosolic dsDNAs that prevent cGAS activation by competing with long dsDNA and induce autophagy. In this way, scDNA prevents excessive inflammatory cytokine production following long cytosolic DNA stimulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is one of the thrombotic microangiopathies and it consists of the triad of nonimmune microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and acute kidney injury. The atypical form of HUS (aHUS) is related to causative mutations in complement genes. Some conditions act as a trigger for aHUS in individuals that have a genetic background predisposing to complement activation. Interferon β is a recombinant-protein therapy approved to treat multiple sclerosis (MS), and can be a causative agent in the occurrence of HUS through anti-angiogenic activity. In this paper, we briefly review aHUS clinical and genetic characteristics. Furthermore, we present a case of a 48-year-old woman, diagnosed with MS and treated with INFβ-1b from 2008. In December 2015, she presented with asthenia and loss of muscular strength in the legs and she quickly developed aHUS. Our case suggests that INFβ is a possible triggering factor for HUS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Innate immunity plays an important role in brain ischemic injury, but there are only few studies on the effects of toll-like receptors (TLRs) on cerebral infarction patients up to now. We aimed to evaluate the TLR mRNA expression of patients with different outcomes.Methods: Eighty-six cases suffering from cerebral infarction within 14 days were assigned into the good outcome group (n = 47) and the bad outcome group (n = 39) depending on the modified Rankin Scale scores (mRS ≤2 at 90 days following stroke onset was good outcome). We measured the mRNA expression of TLRs in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients at 24 hours, 3 days, 4 days, 7 days, and 14 days from onset. The National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score and infarction volume were assessed on admission and at 7-14 days, respectively.Results: Only TLR3 mRNA expression of the good outcome group was higher than that of the bad outcome group at acute and subacute phases. TLR7 expressions of the good outcome group increased within 3 days following stroke onset. Moreover, the two groups had no significant differences in terms of mRNA expressions of TLR2, TLR4, TLR8, and TLR9. The expression of interferon β of the good outcome group was higher than that of the bad outcome group, and it had a positive correlation with the expressions of TLR3 and interferon regulatory factor 3.Conclusions: TLR3 and interferon β mRNA expressions were increased in the peripheral blood of ischemic stroke patients with good outcome, which may imply their neuroprotection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feline panleucopenia virus (FPV) is a highly infectious pathogen that causes severe diseases in pets, economically important animals and wildlife in China. Although FPV was identified several years ago, little is known about how it overcomes the host innate immunity. In the present study, we demonstrated that infection with the FPV strain Philips-Roxane failed to activate the interferon β (IFN-β) pathway but could antagonize the induction of IFN stimulated by Sendai virus (SeV) in F81 cells. Subsequently, by screening FPV nonstructural and structural proteins, we found that only nonstructural protein 2 (NS2) significantly suppressed IFN expression. We demonstrated that the inhibition of SeV-induced IFN-β production by FPV NS2 depended on the obstruction of the IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) signaling pathway. Further, we verified that NS2 was able to target the serine/threonine-protein kinase TBK1 and prevent it from being recruited by stimulator of interferon genes (STING) protein, which disrupted the phosphorylation of the downstream protein IRF3. Finally, we identified that the C-terminus plus the coiled coil domain are the key domains of NS2 that are required for inhibiting the IFN pathway. Our study has yielded strong evidence for the FPV mechanisms that counteract the host innate immunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conjugation of therapeutic proteins to polyethylene glycol (PEG) is known as PEGylation. It improves their retention in the body and reduces the frequency of injections. Development of noninvasive delivery systems for biopharmaceuticals can improve the patients’ quality of life. The present study aimed to evaluate the cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), which act as bioenhancers, for the nasal delivery of protein drug interferon beta (IFN-β) and its PEGylated form (PEG-IFN-β). The ability of CPPs to enhance the nasal mucosal absorption of unmodified IFN-β was assessed in rats. It was shown that only d -amino acid forms of amphipathic CPPs, penetratin and PenetraMax significantly enhanced the nasal absorption of IFN-β. Especially, D-penetratin (up to 2 mM) enhanced the absorption of INF-β in a dose-dependent manner. The maximum absolute bioavailability reached 8.26% following in situ nasal coadministration of IFN-β with d -penetratin (2 mM). Furthermore, it was found that the coadministration of d -penetratin also facilitated the nasal absorption of PEG-IFN-β, which remained in the circulation for more than 6 h. Moreover, the toxicity assessments showed no damage to the epithelial membranes after nasal administration of CPPs including penetratin and PenetraMax. Altogether, this study provides the first evidence that the noncovalent coadministration of PEGylated proteins with CPPs could be a potent strategy for the noninvasive and sustained nasal delivery of therapeutic proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the anticancer efficacy of interferon β in combination with low dose of cisplatin on human cervical cancer progression, as well as its principal action mechanism. The combination treatment synergistically potentiated the effect of interferon β on cell growth inhibition and DNA damage on HeLa cells by repressing NF-κB/p-Akt signaling. Synergistic targeting of these pathways has a therapeutic potential. Further, the combination treatment ameliorated the expression of pro-apoptotic Bax, and decreased the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2. Additionally, the expression of active PARP was significantly increased and MMP-9 level was decreased in combination group as compared to the expression seen for the treatment with interferon β or cisplatin alone. Results demonstrate that the synergistic inhibitory effects of interferon β and low dose of cisplatin on human cervical cancer cells and also suggest that the inhibition of NF-κB/p-Akt signaling pathway plays a critical role in the anticancer effects of combination treatment along with the induction of PARP. Therefore, the combination of interferon β and cisplatin may be a useful treatment for human cervical cancer, with a greater effectiveness than other treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose Combining different therapies may improve disease control in patients with relapsing−remitting multiple sclerosis ( RRMS). This study assessed the efficacy and safety of minocycline added to subcutaneous (sc) interferon ( IFN) β-1a therapy. Methods This was a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled multicentre study. Within 3 months (±1 month) of starting sc IFN β-1a 44 μg three times weekly, patients with RRMS were randomized to minocycline 100 mg twice daily or placebo, added to sc IFN β-1a, for 96 weeks. The primary efficacy endpoint was the time to first qualifying relapse. Secondary efficacy endpoints were the annualized relapse rate for qualifying relapses, the number of new/enlarging T2-weighted lesions and change in brain volume [magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI) was performed only in a few selected centres]. In addition, a number of tertiary efficacy endpoints were assessed. Results One hundred and forty-nine patients received minocycline and 155 received placebo; MRI data were available for 23 and 27 patients, respectively. The time to first qualifying relapse did not differ significantly for minocycline versus placebo (hazard ratio 0.85; 95% confidence interval 0.53, 1.35; log-rank = 0.50; P = 0.48). There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups on other efficacy endpoints, although some numerical trends in favour of minocycline were observed. No unexpected adverse events were reported, but more patients discontinued because of adverse events with minocycline versus placebo. Conclusion Minocycline showed no statistically significant beneficial effect when added to sc IFN β-1a therapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]