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The objective of this article is to analyze the direct effect of EU directives in vertical and horizontal legal relationships as well as theindirect effect of EU directivesin the context of EU Court of Justice decisions. In particular, attention is paid to the study of the consolidated legal positions regarding the possibility of the “verticaldirecteffect”, “horizontaldirecteffect” and “indirect effect”of EU directives.Dialectical, comparative-legal, historical, and formal dogmatic methods were used in the research.As the resultof analyzewas made the conclusion that the EU directives, which are used by national courts to fulfill their obligations regarding the respective interpretation, can not be considered with direct effect, because in such disputes they serve as a means of determiningthe scope of other legal provisions that the national court treats or interprets. In such situations, the directive may be applied in cases indirectly, that is, by virtue of another (national) provision, as interpreted.

The detection of novel stimuli is critical to learn and survive in a dynamic environment. Though novel stimuli powerfully affect brain activity, their impact on specific cell types and circuits is not well understood. Disinhibition is one candidate mechanism for novelty-induced enhancements in activity. Here we characterize the impact of stimulus novelty on disinhibitory circuit components using longitudinal 2-photon calcium imaging of Vip, Sst, and excitatory populations in the mouse visual cortex. Mice learn a behavioral task with stimuli that become highly familiar, then are tested on both familiar and novel stimuli. Mice consistently perform the task with novel stimuli, yet responses to stimulus presentations and stimulus omissions are dramatically altered. Further, we find that novelty modifies coding of visual as well as behavioral and task information. At the population level, the direction of these changes is consistent with engagement of the Vip-Sst disinhibitory circuit. At the single cell level, we identify separate clusters of Vip, Sst, and excitatory cells with unique patterns of novelty-induced coding changes. This study and the accompanying open-access dataset reveals the impact of novelty on sensory and behavioral representations in visual cortical circuits and establishes novelty as a key driver of cellular functional diversity.

While connectivity within sensory cortical circuits has been studied extensively, how these connections contribute to perception and behavior is not well understood. Here we tested the role of a circuit between layers 3 and 5 of auditory cortex in sound detection. We measured sound detection using a common variant of pre-pulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response, in which a silent gap in background noise acts as a cue that attenuates startle. We used the Nr5a-Cre driver line, which we found drove expression in the auditory cortex restricted predominantly to layer 3. Photoactivation of these cells evoked short-latency, highly reliable spiking in downstream layer 5 neurons, and attenuated startle responses similarly to gaps in noise. Photosuppression of these cells did not affect behavioral gap detection. Our data provide the first demonstration that direct activation of auditory cortical neurons is sufficient to attenuate the acoustic startle response, similar to the detection of a sound.

Auditory cortex (AC) is necessary for the detection of brief gaps in ongoing sounds, but not for the detection of longer gaps or other stimuli such as tones or noise. It remains unclear why this is so, and what is special about brief gaps in particular. Here, we used both optogenetic suppression and conventional lesions to show that the cortical dependence of brief gap detection hinges specifically on gap termination. We then identified a cortico-collicular gap detection circuit that amplifies cortical gap termination responses before projecting to inferior colliculus (IC) to impact behavior. We found that gaps evoked off-responses and on-responses in cortical neurons, which temporally overlapped for brief gaps, but not long gaps. This overlap specifically enhanced cortical responses to brief gaps, whereas IC neurons preferred longer gaps. Optogenetic suppression of AC reduced collicular responses specifically to brief gaps, indicating that under normal conditions, the enhanced cortical representation of brief gaps amplifies collicular gap responses. Together these mechanisms explain how and why AC contributes to the behavioral detection of brief gaps, which are critical cues for speech perception, perceptual grouping, and auditory scene analysis.

The active usage of the technologies, constant exchange of information and its use demanded a clear regulation of relations within the functioning of the digital market. In the context of the implementation of the Association Agreements between Ukraine and the EU, it seems necessary to study the positive experience of regulating relations and protecting intellectual property rights within the European Union digital market. The article explores such EU secondary law acts as directives and regulations that determine the foundations and features of the functioning of EU digital market actors. In particular, it examined Directive (EU) 2019/789 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 laying down rules on the use of copyright and related rights applicable to certain online broadcasting and retransmission of broadcasting programs and amending Council Directive 93/83 EEC (2019), which regulates the principles governing the transboundary transmission of television and radio broadcasting via the satellite network; Directive (EU) 2019/790 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on copyright and related rights in the Digital Single Market and amending Directives 96/9/EC and 2001/29/2019, which amended and expended 7 existing Directives governing relevant issues, Regulation (EU) 2019/517 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 March 2019 on the implementation and operation of the .eu top-level domain name and amending and repealing Regulation (EU) No 733/2002, and repealing Commission Regulation (EC) No 874/2002 (2019), which provides a number of important innovations for the .eu top-level domain name and Regulation (EU) No 2017/1128 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 June 2017 on the cross-border movement of Internet content services in the internal market, which identifies legitimate access to portable internet-Content. Not only when they are in their own country, but also when moving within the EU. Key words: digital market; legal regulation of EU digital market functioning; .eu top-level domain name; portable internet content; cross-border transmission.

Research of the decisions of the European Court of Justice and of the European Court of Human Right is crucial in the process of approximation of Ukrainian legislation to the EU Law. This article subjects to analysis certain decisions of the Court of Justice of the EU in the area of Personal Data Protection, in particular, the main principles of protection. Court of Justice of the EU forms its decisions on Personal Data Protection in the format of conclusions, provided by the Court in response to the pre-judicial requests from national courts in relation to enquiries from citizens on legality of processing of their personal data, on terms of response to such enquiries, on terms of access by citizens to information which is considered Personal Data, on ensuring security of keeping Personal Data, on restrictions in collecting data, on the provisions in the national law on independence of bodies responsible for collecting and storing personal data. These conclusions of the Court of Justice of the EU aim to prevent violations of the protection of personal data or of its security, which could lead to accidental or illegal destruction, loss, change, unauthorised access to data. It should be noted that the term Personal Data covers not only the private sphere of citizens but also their professional or civic activity. Key words: personal data; EU; Court of Justice of the EU; EU principles of Personal Data Protection.

Existence of a paradigm of the consumer society causes in modern world causes no doubts. Consumering is a process which includes a choice of goods or services, keeping their maintenance and repairs, managing them. Ukraine has adopted the Civil Code which in fact is the act of the European Private Law, therefore the private rights protection is now in place. Articles 282, 708, 709 of the Civil Code of Ukraine guarantee proection of rights of a person as of a customer. The Law of Ukraine "On Protecting the Customers Rights" - partly harmonised with the EU Law - has provisions developed in line with the EU standards on customers rights protection. It is necessary to follow further developments in this area in the EU and to make sure they are applied to the Ukrainian context. Therefore a study of the types and forms of protection of the customers rights in the EU as well as of the mechanisms of possible application and the sources of law is of considerable importance. Of particular interest are the aspects of the rights of customers who make e-agreements taking the offers of the online shops, which are being regularly updated in the EU. Ukraine's legislation has to ensure similar provisions so that the rights of customers are guaranteed and spesific features of these agreements are taken into consideration. It should also be noted in this regard that there's a considerable number of EU Directives which deal with the protection of a customer in the area of information advertising, tourism services, information technologies at large. A wide range of issues and relevant EU legislation have therefore to be approximated and regulated in the Ukrainian law. Research on this topic is also part of the tasks that Ukraine has to fulfil under its obligations on the protection of the customers' rights within the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement

Summary The ability to genetically identify and manipulate neural circuits in the mouse is rapidly advancing our understanding of visual processing in the mammalian brain [1, 2]. However, studies investigating the circuitry that underlies complex ethologically relevant visual behaviors in the mouse have been primarily restricted to fear responses [3–5]. Here, we show that a laboratory strain of mouse ( Mus musculus , C57BL/6J) robustly pursues, captures, and consumes live insect prey and that vision is necessary for mice to perform the accurate orienting and approach behaviors leading to capture. Specifically, we differentially perturbed visual or auditory input in mice and determined that visual input is required for accurate approach, allowing maintenance of bearing to within 11° of the target on average during pursuit. While mice were able to capture prey without vision, the accuracy of their approaches and capture rate dramatically declined. To better explore the contribution of vision to this behavior, we developed a simple assay that isolated visual cues and simplified analysis of the visually guided approach. Together, our results demonstrate that laboratory mice are capable of exhibiting dynamic and accurate visually guided approach behaviors and provide a means to estimate the visual features that drive behavior within an ethological context.

The paper examines legal foundations of adaptation of the Ukrainian laws to the EU Law in the area of company regulation, in particular in the context of the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement. Specific aspects of the corporate law implementation as well as topical acts and provisions are outlined in the research, which should be harmonized with the EU Law provisions in the process of law making on accompany regulation. The laws of Ukraine are analyzed with the view of defining the state of play with the implementation of relevant provisions of the Association Agreement on company regulation. New laws are subject to analysis, in particular, those related to coming into force of the Law of Ukraine «On amending some legislation on enhancing the level of corporate management in joint ventures» (of 23 March 2017, № 1983-VIII) and «On ventures with limited and additional liability», which takes into account certain provisions of EU Directive № 89/667/ЄЕС of 21 December 1989 on one-person private companies with limited liability in the edition of EU Directive 2009/102/ЄС of 16 September 2009, obligatory for implementation by Ukraine according to the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement. Key words : corporate law; EU-Ukraine Association Agreement implementation; company law.

Cortical inhibitory neurons exhibit remarkable diversity in their morphology, connectivity, and synaptic properties. Here, we review the function of somatostatin-expressing (SOM) inhibitory interneurons, focusing largely on sensory cortex. SOM neurons also comprise a number of subpopulations that can be distinguished by their morphology, input and output connectivity, laminar location, firing properties, and expression of molecular markers. Several of these classes of SOM neurons show unique dynamics and characteristics, such as facilitating synapses, specific axonal projections, intralaminar input, and top-down modulation, which suggest possible computational roles. SOM cells can be differentially modulated by behavioral state depending on their class, sensory system, and behavioral paradigm. The functional effects of such modulation have been studied with optogenetic manipulation of SOM cells, which produces effects on learning and memory, task performance, and the integration of cortical activity. Different classes of SOM cells participate in distinct disinhibitory circuits with different inhibitory partners and in different cortical layers. Through these disinhibitory circuits, SOM cells help encode the behavioral relevance of sensory stimuli by regulating the activity of cortical neurons based on subcortical and intracortical modulatory input. Associative learning leads to long-term changes in the strength of connectivity of SOM cells with other neurons, often influencing the strength of inhibitory input they receive. Thus despite their heterogeneity and variability across cortical areas, current evidence shows that SOM neurons perform unique neural computations, forming not only distinct molecular but also functional subclasses of cortical inhibitory interneurons.