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A key policy ambition for degree apprenticeships is to offer an alternative route to a degree for disadvantaged young people, and in doing so facilitate widening participation in higher education. However, degree apprenticeships in England are poorly understood and this is reflected in their policy conceptualisation and implementation in practice. Utilising a framework combining Varieties of Capitalism and Bourdieusian scholarships, this thesis seeks to analyse this issue by highlighting the structures and mechanisms at play at macro, meso and micro levels. In this way I draw attention to the conflicting key stakeholder perceptions, whilst also emphasising a general desire for degree apprenticeships to become a successful part of the education landscape. I took a mixed methods approach that included interviewing degree apprentices as well as other key stakeholders, therefore providing a multi-stakeholder understanding of the degree apprenticeship landscape. My practitioner experiences in education with young people, brought a nuanced understanding of the context and added to the wealth of observations from interviewees. My findings indicate that the wider socio-economic landscape limits accessibility for young people, therefore negatively impacting the potential for degree apprenticeships to facilitate widening participation in higher education. It is clear that the structural and class inequalities underlying the current landscape need to be addressed in order for degree apprenticeships to provide a real alternative for the young school or college leaver from low socio-economic backgrounds. Changes in policy and practice are necessary for this to be achieved. This thesis opens up a discursive space for these changes to begin.

This is a phenomenological study of privileged education and the role it plays in social reproduction within the context of an elite international school. The project is based on interviews with sixteen adolescents completing the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme. A qualitative study through narrative methods enables the participants to offer a portrait of their perspectives on the habitus of their school in Central Europe. The research examines social group-making in this transnational setting to explore global class hierarchies. Current political and historical dynamics can be viewed within this space in an interdisciplinary manner to demonstrate how this impacts the social relations of these students. These global flows will be considered within the narratives that the participants offer on their class groupings in order to consider the international school as a space for cultural exchange. There is complexity to the social class making that is taking place there, and this study aims to explore this social organisation to better recognise how international schools establish students as a 'global elite'. This research will focus on this social reality of the under-researched domain of international education by allowing students to express their stories about how they conceive of their privileged schooling.

In its traditional role, the university was perceived as a hub for knowledge-creation, teaching, and research. Higher education was afforded primarily by the elite and seen as a means of transmitting culture. The liberal arts, in particular, were seen to add cultural, social, and intellectual capital to graduates. Over time, and specifically with the advent of the Human Capital Theory, workers' employability came to be seen as the focus of higher education. Disciplinary and vocational knowledge took precedence as employability became a primary reason for enrolling in higher education. Now, graduate employability is seen to be of utmost importance as careers become non-linear and technology makes several entry-level jobs redundant. This is a comparative case study of employability at two liberal arts institutions in the United Arab Emirates. This study aims to explore how employability is conceived, embedded, and enacted by the respective administrative offices and the leadership, faculty, students, and alumni of the civil and computer engineering programmes at each institution. It intends to portray a cohesive picture of employability, while offering insights into comparisons and contrasts where possible. In particular, the liberal arts focus at both institutions adds a unique layer of analysis to this study, since science- and technology-based disciplines are typically regarded as vocational subjects, unlike the liberal arts. Findings suggest that both institutions conceptualised employability differently, one with a traditional notion and the other with a more contemporary view. The liberal arts were seen to offer immense potential in aligning graduate identities with careers of the future. However, the meaning and relation of a liberal arts philosophy to science- and technology-based disciplines was unclear to some key stakeholders. Finally, structural forces in the local labour market, non-linear careers, economic and cultural factors, and hiring models specific to this region were found to significantly impact graduate employability at the two institutions in question.

During the past several decades, higher education has undergone profound changes through internationalization, privatization, and marketization. Since many universities are now global entities operating in the style of New Public Management (NPM), there is a need to explore how this impacts the experiences of academic life. International Branch Campuses (IBCs) are interesting and complex sites because they represent various dimensions of marketization in both organizational structure and management. This study focuses on IBCs specifically those that are entered into private equity/commercial infrastructure partnerships. The intended aim of the research is to provide insight into how academics perceive the effects of marketization on academic life, professional autonomy, and institutional practice. The primary academic literature is focused on the wide-scale implications of the marketization of higher education. Therefore, this study examines the theoretical literature at the micro-levels of institutional practice and professional experience. Using a critical realism paradigm, the research approach is dynamic, drawing on both grounded theory and multiple case studies. Instruments of data collection include semi-structured interviews and participant reflective responses, which are examined using a critical thematic analysis approach. The analysis suggests that the organizational qualities of a commercially partnered IBC may foster an environment where the effects of marketization and NPM are more pronounced, and critical and creative practices are less likely to be encouraged due to curriculum standardization, deprofessionalization, and efforts to involve faculty in sales and retail practices. As a result, the study recommends long-term investment in critical and creative teaching and more transparency through the reporting and publication of institutional and financial data.

In an era of globalising and massified higher education (HE), this thesis presents a novel approach to studying social inequalities in HE by foregrounding the spatial processes underlying student mobilities and youth transitions. It does so by examining the perspectives of two groups of British young people - from a state school in South Yorkshire in northern England, and an elite international school in Singapore - whose trajectories are configured unevenly, shaped by their geographic im/mobilities, and their imaginaries of place, space and class. Although much has been written on the perspectives of young people from different social class backgrounds regarding where they 'fit' in relation to the social field of HE (Reay, 2017), research on how both social and spatial forces shape student mobilities and youth transitions has been somewhat limited. Using a qualitative mapping method and semi-structured interviews, this thesis incorporates these spatial elements, eliciting socio-spatial imaginaries, and presenting a nuanced and interdisciplinary approach to the study of student mobilities. In the study, social and spatial processes mediate the young people's imaginaries of their current and future selves, albeit in starkly different ways and at different spatial scales. Individuals are positioned inequitably in relation to socio-spatial geometries structuring the social fields of HE. Furthermore, the globalisation and massification of HE systems have further entrenched inequalities between the two groups, diminishing the time-space between HE institutions in the global north and the globally mobile elite students in the study, while marginalising those in northern England.

This thesis assesses neoliberal discourses in current Canadian communicative language teaching (CLT) policy of French as a Second Language (FSL). Neoliberalism or the deregulation of the state based on the principle of meritocracy, or equal competition (Brown & Lauder 2006) gives rise to the competing discourses of language commodification or standardization (LC) (Cameron 2012; Block 2019) and sociolinguistic superdiversity (SSD) (Blommaert 2010, 2016) that marks the mixed and hybrid language forms of transnational workers and their families. Parallel discourses in CLT pedagogy, advocated by Canadian FSL policy, also distinguish between standard or monolingual language forms and emergent language through its weak and strong methodological approaches. This thesis offers a three-way contribution to current research. Firstly, I deploy a novel philosophical argument that problematizes meritocracy in discursive and epistemic terms. I argue that the neoliberal view of meritocracy imposes monolingual language constraints on language learners through the neoliberal discourse of LC that manifests as a hegemonic discourse in weak CLT policy precepts. This illuminates a long-standing criticism of CLT that charges its weak form with limiting discursive and hence social possibilities for post-structuralist (PS) language learners (Norton 2000, 2013; Norton & Toohey 2011; Pavlenko & Blackledge 2004; Lin 2012). I call this tension between monolingual language standards and PS language learner identities the method-related problem of identity (MRPI) and argue that it emerges as a product of LC.Secondly, I deploy a (critical) corpus-based critical discourse analysis (CDA) to assess neoliberal discourses in Canadian CLT policy of FSL. A computerized keyword analysis that statistically isolates the nodes 'teachers' and 'students' serves as an entrypoint to the two-part critical analysis of policy. I conceptualize and carry out a critical approach to semantic preference (SP) in corpus-based research (CBR), which extends the analysis of collocations beyond their immediate lexical environment to consider macro political discourses as retroductive antecedents to social injustice found in discourse. Thirdly, a CDA of the node 'students' confirms the findings of the critical SP of 'teachers' to conclude that aspects of current Canadian CLT policy seem to suggest a weak CLT-oriented pedagogy and hence to an LC neoliberal discourse that gives rise to MRPI language learning contexts. This thesis ends with a discussion on the theoretical and methodological contributions of this study. I reflect on limitations and suggest directions this thesis opens for future research.

Some leading behavioural geneticists propose the design of education around universal DNA testing. Their research and advocacy, referred to here as edugenics, revolves around the study of human genetic material in order to predict individual learning predispositions. This has attracted high-level UK government interest. The historical lineage of such scholarship runs from the first half of the 20th century when intelligence theory, genetics and eugenics were closely linked; through an apparent epistemological division between scientists and non-scientists; to later 20th century and early 21st century scientific ambiguity around issues such as race. This thesis takes a long historical view. Its perspective is liberal but it employs both critical theory and critical race theory to help expose assumptions about race veiled in the edugenics literature. It explores themes of scientism, authorial gamesmanship and media amplification. Two devices employed by some geneticists to evade the charge of scientific racism are explored. It is suggested that the primary intended application of edugenics may be as a technology of embryo selection, where related products appear close to market. These devices, it is argued, do not of themselves invalidate edugenics research, but they do present unexposed risk to policymakers.

The recruitment and retention of teachers has been the subject of much debate and consternation over the last two decades given teacher shortages and high attrition rates seen in some contexts. While many factors have been attributed to this phenomenon, very little consideration has been given to the influence of social media on the recruitment and retention of expatriate teachers in educational discourse. Utilising the uses and gratifications theory as the main theoretical framework and a mixed methods approach, this study establishes the influence of social media on expatriate teacher recruitment and retention in Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates. Online surveys provided breadth and scope while focus group interviews offered the explanations that are necessary from a critical realist perspective. Quantitative analysis of online survey data revealed the importance of social media in enabling expatriate teachers to maintain connections and relationships with family and friends in their home country confirming the views expressed in the reviewed literature of social needs as a major driver for using social media. Qualitative data analysis highlighted the overall importance of social media to expatriate teachers in finding information and sharing resources before moving to Abu Dhabi, and, during their time in the emirate. The active nature of expatriate teachers in their selection of which social media platforms to use and to which groups they participated in based on their needs at a given time was evident highlighting the goal-directed nature of social media use by expatriate teachers. The informational and emotional support offered to expatriate teachers on social media, while not experienced by all teachers, was valuable to those who received it, thus supporting their determination to remain employed in Abu Dhabi. While the support offered by family and friends differed to that offered by other expatriate teachers, the positive effect this had on retention was evident in this study. This study contributes to the scant literature on the influence of social media on expatriate teacher recruitment and retention and draws attention to key considerations applicable to the Abu Dhabi context. Further research in this area can draw on some of the insights highlighted in this context and support policy makers and those tasked with staffing schools to harness the power of social media to meet the staffing requirements of schools both locally and on the global arena.

The Syrian civil war is undeniably one of the largest humanitarian crises of modern time. With host countries, such as Lebanon, taking in a disproportionately large influx of refugees in their already fragile national structure, there erupts a complex situation of meeting the needs of the refugee population without compromising the local population. Thus, while education up to the end of secondary school is provided free for refugee children through international and national funding, there are many challenges with regards to not only the access to secondary and higher education, but the role of post grade nine (or post primary school) education for refugee children. This dissertation outlines the post primary school options for Syrian refugee children in Lebanon while at the same time analyzing the perceived options and reasoning behind the choices taken by the refugees themselves. The research will be conducted using an adapted form of grounded theory which does not assume a certain approach to education is ideal and takes on the viewpoints of multiple stakeholders. This two-part analysis includes an open-ended questionnaire sent to policy makers at various governmental and NGO levels in Lebanon as well as a systematic internet search to unveil all post primary school options for Syrian refugees. The second part of the dissertation consists of interviews with refugee children about to finish their primary school years, and refugee teenagers who have made their post primary school choices in Lebanon in an attempt to reveal how refugees view secondary and higher education; what choices they make after primary school and the obstacles they may face in order to meet their educational goals. These are contrasted with interviews of Lebanese students who attend schools in the same areas. The dissertation ends with insights regarding the theoretical implications of education for refugees as well as policy level recommendations.

This thesis is an exploration in mindfulness and learning through the direct experiences of high school adolescents in Amsterdam and Bangkok. The research study uses a phenomenological paradigm to examine how cultural constructs of the mind influence student experience. This year-long qualitative study results in a deep dive analysis of four exemplar students. The extent to which cultural constructs of the mind influence the experience of mindfulness and learning is reflected in the student voice in both social contexts. The literature review provides an account of the evolution and expansion of the phenomenon of mindfulness from its Buddhist roots to Western society, along with its present-day application within the educational context. The relationship between attention and mindfulness and the student experience of learning is also explored. The implications of policy borrowing and cross-cultural transference are noted, given the increased prevalence of mindfulness in schools programs internationally. The analysis of themes and use of portraiture to illustrate the experiences of the exemplar students sheds light on how their understanding of the mind influences their experience of both mindfulness and learning. The nuances in language, coupled with the cultural constructs of the mind have a direct impact on how students engage with the phenomena. Furthermore, the overarching differences around student understanding of mindfulness, whether taught through a secular lens or established in a particular cultural ethos, influence whether it is viewed as a well-being strategy or a way of life. The thesis concludes that one’s understanding of mindfulness, along with the extent of one’s relationship to its practice, can have an effect on the experience of learning.

In 2016, the New England Association of Schools and Colleges Commission on International Education (NEASC/CIE), introduced a major modification to its long-established school accreditation process. This new protocol, called ACE (Architecture, Culture, Ecology), aimed “to transform rather than ‘improve’ schools and reshapes accreditation into an instrument to enable systemic change” (NEASC/CIE 2016). Through the introduction of ACE, NEASC/CIS hoped to initiate a paradigm shift in both the expectations of and outcomes for school accreditation. This study explored NEASC/CIE’s claims for ACE by focusing on the experience of schools involved in ACE accreditation and specifically inquiring how the ACE protocol impacted learning practices within participating schools and to what degree school leadership perceived ACE as catalyzing transformational educational change within participant schools. Seven schools participated in a mixed-methods case study involving the analysis of learning principle reports produced by the schools as part of the ACE protocol, along with direct interviews with school administrators. Analysis of report and interview data indicated that, while participating schools utilized language that aligned with NEASC/CIE’s conceptualization of transformative learning impacts less frequently than more traditional language, school administrators reported multiple ways in which the ACE protocol positively impacted the overall school community. Based on the results of this study, it was concluded that schools valued accreditation by NEASC/CIE, the ACE protocol facilitated whole-school collaboration, and dialogue generated during the ACE self-study was frequently focused on the impact of learning on students. That said, this study also concluded that greater supports may be necessary to help schools navigate the ACE protocol and truly implement transformational learning shifts within their communities. Given that the ACE protocol was in its infancy at the time of this study, numerous opportunities for further study exist that may include, but should not be limited to, the exploration of the lived experience of the various stakeholders participating in the ACE protocol, comparative studies between ACE and other accreditation models, or longitudinal studies of exploring the impact of ACE within learning communities over time.

Over the past decade, an inflection in employers' use of work placement has been evident, with many organisations using it as an alternative vehicle to identify, attract and retain a future graduate talent pipeline. Work placement allows employers to observe prospective graduate recruits in a work setting. It also affords student interns the opportunity to assess their host organisation as a potential graduate employer. Such use of work placement as an instrument of "pre-cruitment" has received relatively scant attention in the European context. Using the theoretical framework of organisational socialisation, this mixed methods study explores student interns' experience of socialisation during placement and its relationship with their intention to return to work with their employer after graduation.

At present international schools continue to experience unprecedented growth. Offering elite, blue chip education, these schools, which were once the domains of elite expatriates, are now predominantly occupied by locals, many of whom seek access to Western universities and the global knowledge economy. Shifting demographics coupled with delivering a curriculum rooted in a Western tradition may suggest these schools constitute a new form of imperialism. While both the growth of such schools and their demand for teachers has led to increasing coverage within the mainstream and academic community, there remains a dearth of knowledge regarding teachers. It is into this space that the current study seeks to shed some light. In particular, it aims to explore why and how teachers become ‘international’, and the impact such development has on their praxis. It also seeks to explore how teachers, as front-line workers, position themselves within the discourse surrounding international schools as artificers of a global elite driven by a Western, globalist agenda. Utilising a mixed-methods approach, the study employs a methodology drawing upon theoretical frameworks developed by Foucault and Bourdieu. This dualist approach serves to not only extrapolate the origin of ideas and motivations that shape teachers’ praxis, it also seeks to understand this praxis in action. Findings suggest a teacher’s decision to pursue an international career is attributable to a variety of push/pull factors. Moreover, there is a need for a revision of praxis to better meet students’ needs and parental expectations. The evidence suggests that revising praxis is challenged by the opacity of key terms and assumptions within the field. Likewise, teachers employ a variety of approaches to learning and curriculum delivery that are explicitly cognizant not only of students’ cultural, national or ethnic background but also of their elite economic and social status. The study concludes with recommendations for further research.

This thesis examines the apparent paradox between the introduction of new technology into the classroom and studies that have reported that they have had little effect on learning (Cuban, 1986; 2001; 2003; Selwyn, 2014; 2015; 2016a; 2016b). If this is the case, then it raises the question of why. Central to this thesis is the apparent distance between expectations of technology in teaching and learning and the current practices of teachers and young people. The context for this enquiry is a special school in the UK that is designated as an IT Showcase School. Following an examination of the literature, the thesis provides an account of the history of the Gutenberg press as a means of identifying how technology might change social and educational practices. Given the length of time it takes for major technological change to take effect, any study of the impact of new technology needs to be placed in a historical context. Of particular note, is that with respect to the Church the role of both the priesthood and the laity changed as a result of the Gutenberg press. The dissemination of knowledge through the books produced by the technology of the Press enabled the traditional authority of the Church to be challenged. This analysis is used as a guide to examining the current social and educational practices of young people and teachers to try to elicit whether any parallels can be drawn between the history of the Gutenberg and current uses of new technology. The historical analysis lays the ground for a study of the views of teachers and students to assess the ways new technology is being used by them. The views of young people and teachers are garnered through focus groups, a collaborative IT tool, and open-ended questionnaires. It is found that the traditional role of the teacher is being challenged as are the ways young people communicate outside the classroom. The teachers raised a series of issues that were barriers to the innovative use of technology, while the students drew a strong distinction between the uses of technology outside school and inside, which may also deter innovative technologies for learning. This thesis concludes with a set of practical implications for how we might improve the incorporation of technology in the learning process, more effectively.

This study examines how institutional actors interpret, influence and respond to skills availability in the labour market for graduates. It researches and draws lessons from the Maltese experience of managing graduate employability over three decades, focusing on the three fastest-growing economic sectors, namely, Accountancy, Pharmachem and ICT, each of which is the subject of a case study. The study investigates the interaction of governments, firms, higher education institutions and professional associations in identifying skills shortages and gaps, as well as in devising policy frameworks and skills regimes at national, sectoral and corporate levels. Drawing upon theories of employability and employee skills, first, there is development of an analytical framework to examine how these institutional actors affect the labour market, which informs the analysis of the three case studies. The qualitative research involved an interpretative analysis of key policy documents related to graduate employability and seventy in-depth interviews with interlocutors positioned in strategic policy making, senior management, academic, expert and professional leadership roles within government, regulators, major corporations, higher education institutions, training providers and professional associations. The data was thematically analysed. Twelve key themes emerged from the in-depth interviews, which included the following: use of different language; the meaning of employability; the value of credentials; the role of the University; perceptions; expectations; competitiveness; modes of training provision; labour mobility; placements and incentives; collaboration and skills gap. The institutional actors across the three focal sectors, namely, accountancy, pharmachem and ICT tended to emphasise some themes more than others, these having previously been identified in scholarly literature (Appendix 1). Both patterns and inconsistencies emerged from a comparison of the accountancy, pharmachem and ICT sectors. In so far as the labour market is concerned, the study revealed a lack of technical skills and major non-technical graduate skills gaps, specifically, in the aspects of communication, teamwork and problem-solving. A number of professional characteristics or behaviours were also identified as lacking with Accountancy, Pharmachem and ICT graduates, namely, attitude, confidence, drive, professional outlook, independent working, personality fit and a ‘can do’ approach. The study revealed the absence of permanent systemic connections between the formulation of national and sectoral economic strategies on the one hand, and higher education and training policies on the other. Consequently, state higher education institutions have been responding reactively to labour market needs, which could explain the endemic skills gap which the study found. The study concludes by discussing limitations and limits to this research as well as recommending policy initiatives and further research that could contribute to the science and practice of public policy in this field.

There is percieved to be an increasing role for private actors in education in different sectors and locations. This is seen as an effect of the increasing role of markets, competition and choice in policy activity. This study explores this from two perspectives: firstly, as an intrinsic case study that aims to shed light on the behaviour of a specific organization. The case examined is that of Pearson which is the largest education company globally. The global reach and extensive nature of Pearson’s diverse activities suggest it may play an important role in education and is of value as an object of study. Secondly, the study examines business behaviour in relation to social policy theory and education policy. Theory suggests that businesses are models and vehicles for efficient service provision. One aim of this research was to discover how this might happen in practice. How might a business actually behave and how does this relate to what theory and policy assumes? The issue is approached through three core aspects of Pearson’s business: globalization, digitization and higher education as they evidence policy themes of markets, competition and choice. The research was framed as a case study using two data types: documentary research and interviews with subjects connected to Pearson. It uses the lens of business practices to examine strategies as they are assumed to relate to other companies, to products, as involvement in education policy emanating from the UK and as practices at subject level. The research finds that Pearson seeks opportunities to manipulate neoliberal policy themes to its advantage. The fact of being a publicly traded company has a significant impact on the organization’s behaviour, which exhibits a monopolizing tendency, and is key to understanding Pearson’s involvement in education.

This thesis investigates the diversity in job quality of university graduates in 17 European countries using multilevel regression modelling, based on combined REFLEX and HEGESCO graduate survey data. The focus of the research is on aspects of graduate jobs that affect quality, especially the analytically neglected aspects of skill utilisation and work autonomy, as well as income, job security and work life balance First, for the purposes of measuring job quality, the thesis proposes an international multidimensional Graduate Job Quality Index (GJQI) with potential applications for further research and policy evaluation. Second, the thesis analyses variance in graduate job quality across 258 sectors of economic activity in the 17 countries studied, and identifies a number of factors that are correlated with overall job quality and its dimensions. The main research focus, however, is on contextual factors in the wider society and economy that help explain both diversity in job quality and differences between different sectors of the economy and different occupational groups. In particular: 1) the adoption of new computer technologies; 2) exposure to globalisation, and 3) high educational attainment in the labour force. The study tests two broadly contrasting theoretical approaches to differences in graduate job quality: skill-biased technological change theory (Acemoglu, 2002) and the new institutionalism (Baker, 2014) on the one hand, and the conflict theory of global knowledge capitalism (Brown et al., 2012) on the other, and in empirical terms finds more support for the latter of two theoretical accounts.

There is a well-documented history of the relationship between poverty and educational underachievement. However, there is limited discussion of the educational achievement of white working class students from deprived backgrounds. The research seeks explanations for why some white working class students in the UK succeed at school. By finding plausible explanations some of the factors behind their success may be applied to improve schooling practices for this group. The research adopts a longitudinal methodology in following a cohort of students in a ‘failing’ school, situated on a council estate in the West of England with high levels of social poverty. Two groups of students are examined, the very top performers in the school and those just above average. Student-led peer interviews, parent interviews, and the use of educational and social data inform the study. The role of cultural capital plays a significant part in the totality of success of the students. The student’s place within the family and its stability, their access to literacy development within the home, and their cultural development in the wider world, together with ‘critical moments’ provide the key performers that have shaped the capital of these students and was translated into a more aspirational outlook on life.

The higher education system has undergone considerable change in the past fifty years. Increasing the number of students enrolled in university has been a focus of these changes. Despite the governments’ attempts in reducing the social class gap, there exist very large differences in those applying for r higher education. It seems despite the large socio-economic gap and the elitist image of attending university, UK government policies have not provided suitable support to reduce this gap. The level of concern over this subject has varied across different governments which could possibly have effects on young people’s transition from school across the different social classes. This thesis will address the difference between the New Labour and the Coalition governments’ level of attention to the issue of working class under-representation in universities and the policies they have developed to tackle it. It then investigates the effects of selected schemes designed to widen participation and explains how and why they are assumed to contribute to the reduction of the class gap in higher education participation. This study uses the dataset Longitudinal Study of Young People in England (LSYPE) to explore the relationship between attending widening access schemes and the likelihood of attending university during the New Labour office term. In doing so, and due to the shortage of direct measurements of state-funded widening participation programs, the analysis in this research uses school engagement activities as proxies. Additionally to provide an intergenerational comparison, given the differences in both data and policy environment, this research analyses the British Cohort Study 1970 data in order to provide further insights regarding the effectiveness of the then school engagement activities on university attendance. In other words, can the activities used to widen participation then provide greater insight into the kinds of programmes that might be effective in raising working class university participation? In turn this analysis provides the basis for an in-depth policy discussion of the issue.

Between 2000 and 2015 the Millennium Development Goals were the focus of much global attention and activity. They were selected in light of astounding poverty, with over 1 billion people at the time living on less than $1 per day. In a sense the MDGs were morally undeniable. The focus of this study is MDG2, universal primary education. It sets out to establish how and why MDG2 came to be selected. Whilst its selection seems obvious, for years developing countries complained about the short-sightedness of prioritising primary over secondary and tertiary education (Klees 2008). A task force commissioned by the World Bank and UNESCO at the time showed that the Bank’s rate of return analysis on primary education was flawed. It argued that developing countries need highly educated people to be economic and social entrepreneurs, develop good governance, strong institutions and infrastructure. In this way MDG2’s selection is problematic. Using case study method, first the literature is examined. Three hypotheses are generated: one based on a rational synoptic theory, one on critical theory and one on world society theory. A range of data are used to establish findings and test hypotheses. The study then considers implications of the findings for theory and the policy process. The findings show that priorities promoting more equal opportunities, such as MDG2, were gradually preferred. Whereas priorities promoting more equal outcomes, such as elimination of trade barriers, were gradually excluded. The study finds no evidence that the General Assembly ever voted on the list of 8 MDGs. Rather, the MDGs were selected by elite policy actors, addressing multiple interests. The study considers the assertion that marginalization of the poor does not happen because people harbor ill will toward them, rather because “The poor have no friends among the global elite” (Pogge 2011, p. 62).

In this work I argue that opportunities exist to develop frameworks for moral or empathy education (hereafter EfE) more consistent with emerging understandings of the way we arrive at moral judgments. I argue that a rapidly evolving construal of moral judgment is more accurate than (still influential) rationalist accounts. The essence of this shifting perspective is a construal of moral judgment as characterised by (1) "primacy of affect" and (2) heightened emphasis on the socially embedded nature of moral judgments. While variously compatible with long established traditions in moral philosophy (particularly the moral sense theories of, inter alia, David Hume or Adam Smith) this distinct view of human moral nature is emerging across a range of empirical disciplines with renewed vigour and enhanced empirical support. Moral psychology and neuroscience play leading, but not exclusive, roles in this emphatically interdisciplinary process. Shifting paradigms in economics, anthropology, and moral psychology are converging on strikingly similar construals of human moral nature. I will argue that the potential of these insights to explain and justify particular approaches to teaching and learning have yet to be fully exploited in contemporary moral education discourse. It will be argued that encouraging the development of dispositional empathy in learners is a choice-worthy and attainable goal of EfE. EfE approaches used to elicit affective/empathic responses and social reflection, such as moral life narrative and other storytelling techniques, comport with emerging views of moral experience and judgment. It is argued that these approaches are, therefore, potentially more effective than rationality-centred systems given a goal of increased dispositional empathy.