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Heparan sulfate (HS) is degraded in lysosome by a series of glycosidases. Before the glycosidases can act, the terminal glucosamine of HS must be acetylated by the integral lysosomal membrane enzyme heparan-α-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase (HGSNAT). Mutations of HGSNAT cause HS accumulation and consequently mucopolysaccharidosis IIIC, a devastating lysosomal storage disease characterized by progressive neurological deterioration and early death where no treatment is available. HGSNAT catalyzes a unique transmembrane acetylation reaction where the acetyl group of cytosolic acetyl-CoA is transported across the lysosomal membrane and attached to HS in one reaction. However, the reaction mechanism remains elusive. Here we report six cryo-EM structures of HGSNAT along the reaction pathway. These structures reveal a dimer arrangement and a unique structural fold, which enables the elucidation of the reaction mechanism. We find that a central pore within each monomer traverses the membrane and controls access of cytosolic acetyl-CoA to the active site at its luminal mouth where glucosamine binds. A histidine-aspartic acid catalytic dyad catalyzes the transfer reaction via a ternary complex mechanism. Furthermore, the structures allow the mapping of disease-causing variants and reveal their potential impact on the function, thus creating a framework to guide structure-based drug discovery efforts., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIB (MPS IIIB, Sanfilippo syndrome type B) is caused by a deficiency in α-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAGLU) activity, which leads to the accumulation of heparan sulfate (HS). MPS IIIB causes progressive neurological decline, with affected patients having an expected lifespan of approximately 20 years. No effective treatment is available. Recent pre-clinical studies have shown that intracerebroventricular (ICV) ERT with a fusion protein of rhNAGLU-IGF2 is a feasible treatment for MPS IIIB in both canine and mouse models. In this study, we evaluated the biochemical efficacy of a single dose of rhNAGLU-IGF2 via ICV-ERT in brain and liver tissue from Naglu -/- neonatal mice. Twelve weeks after treatment, NAGLU activity levels in brain were 0.75-fold those of controls. HS and β-hexosaminidase activity, which are elevated in MPS IIIB, decreased to normal levels. This effect persisted for at least 4 weeks after treatment. Elevated NAGLU and reduced β-hexosaminidase activity levels were detected in liver; these effects persisted for up to 4 weeks after treatment. The overall therapeutic effects of single dose ICV-ERT with rhNAGLU-IGF2 in Naglu -/- neonatal mice were long-lasting. These results suggest a potential benefit of early treatment, followed by less-frequent ICV-ERT dosing, in patients diagnosed with MPS IIIB., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Mucopolysaccharidosis III (Sanfilippo syndrome, MPS III) is caused by lysosomal enzyme deficiency, which is a rare autosomal recessive hereditary disease. For now, there is no approved treatment for MPS III despite lots of efforts providing new vision of its molecular basis, as well as governments providing regulatory and economic incentives to stimulate the development of specific therapies. Those efforts and incentives attract academic institutions and industry to provide potential therapies for MPS III, including enzyme replacement therapies, substrate reduction therapies, gene and cell therapies, and so on, which were discussed in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Mucopolysaccharidosis III B (MPS III-B) is a rare lysosomal storage disorder caused by deficiencies in Alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAGLU) for which there is currently no cure, and present treatment is largely supportive. Understanding the structure of NAGLU may allow for identification of novel therapeutic targets for MPS III-B. Here we describe the first crystal structure of human NAGLU, determined to a resolution of 2.3 Å. The crystal structure reveals a novel homotrimeric configuration, maintained primarily by hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions via domain II of three contiguous domains from the N- to C-terminus. The active site cleft is located between domains II and III. Catalytic glutamate residues, E316 and E446, are located at the top of the (α/β) 8 barrel structure in domain II. We utilized the three-dimensional structure of NAGLU to map several MPS III-B mutations, and hypothesize their functional consequences. Revealing atomic level structural information about this critical lysosomal enzyme paves the way for the design of novel therapeutics to target the underlying causes of MPS III-B., (Copyright © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Given the large and expanding quantity of publicly available sequencing data, it should be possible to extract incidence information for monogenic diseases from allele frequencies, provided one knows which mutations are causal. We tested this idea on a rare, monogenic, lysosomal storage disorder, Sanfilippo Type B (Mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIB). Sanfilippo Type B is caused by mutations in the gene encoding α-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAGLU). There were 189 NAGLU missense variants found in the ExAC dataset that comprises roughly 60,000 individual exomes. Only 24 of the 189 missense variants were known to be pathogenic; the remaining 165 variants were of unknown significance (VUS), and their potential contribution to disease is unknown. To address this problem, we measured enzymatic activities of 164 NAGLU missense VUS in the ExAC dataset and developed a statistical framework for estimating disease incidence with associated confidence intervals. We found that 25% of VUS decreased the activity of NAGLU to levels consistent with Sanfilippo Type B pathogenic alleles. We found that a substantial fraction of Sanfilippo Type B incidence (67%) could be accounted for by novel mutations not previously identified in patients, illustrating the utility of combining functional activity data for VUS with population-wide allele frequency data in estimating disease incidence., Competing Interests: All authors are full time employees of BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

The accumulation of undegraded molecular material leads to progressive neurodegeneration in a number of lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs) that are caused by functional deficiencies of lysosomal hydrolases. To determine whether inducing macroautophagy/autophagy via small-molecule therapy would be effective for neuropathic LSDs due to enzyme deficiency, we treated a mouse model of mucopolysaccharidosis IIIB (MPS IIIB), a storage disorder caused by deficiency of the enzyme NAGLU (alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase [Sanfilippo disease IIIB]), with the autophagy-inducing compound trehalose. Treated naglu -/ - mice lived longer, displayed less hyperactivity and anxiety, retained their vision (and retinal photoreceptors), and showed reduced inflammation in the brain and retina. Treated mice also showed improved clearance of autophagic vacuoles in neuronal and glial cells, accompanied by activation of the TFEB transcriptional network that controls lysosomal biogenesis and autophagic flux. Therefore, small-molecule-induced autophagy enhancement can improve the neurological symptoms associated with a lysosomal enzyme deficiency and could provide a viable therapeutic approach to neuropathic LSDs., Abbreviations: ANOVA: analysis of variance; Atg7: autophagy related 7; AV: autophagic vacuoles; CD68: cd68 antigen; ERG: electroretinogram; ERT: enzyme replacement therapy; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GFAP: glial fibrillary acidic protein; GNAT2: guanine nucleotide binding protein, alpha transducing 2; HSCT: hematopoietic stem cell transplantation; INL: inner nuclear layer; LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 alpha; MPS: mucopolysaccharidoses; NAGLU: alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase (Sanfilippo disease IIIB); ONL: outer nuclear layer; PBS: phosphate-buffered saline; PRKCA/PKCα: protein kinase C, alpha; S1BF: somatosensory cortex; SQSTM1: sequestosome 1; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; TFEB: transcription factor EB; VMP/VPL: ventral posterior nuclei of the thalamus.

Objective: Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIA or Sanfilippo disease type A is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder presenting in early childhood, caused by an inherited deficiency of the lysosomal hydrolase sulfamidase. New missense mutations, for which genotype-phenotype correlations are currently unknown, are frequently reported, hampering early prediction of phenotypic severity and efficacy assessment of new disease-modifying treatments. We aimed to design a method to determine phenotypic severity early in the disease course., Methods: Fifty-three patients were included for whom skin fibroblasts and data on disease course and mutation analysis were available. Patients were phenotypically characterized on clinical data as rapidly progressing or slowly progressing. Sulfamidase activity was measured in fibroblasts cultured at 37 °C and at 30 °C., Results: Sulfamidase activity in fibroblasts from patients homozygous or compound heterozygous for a combination of known severe mutations remained below the limit of quantification under both culture conditions. In contrast, sulfamidase activity in fibroblasts from patients homozygous or compound heterozygous for a known mild mutation increased above the limit of quantification when cultured at 30 °C. With division on the basis of the patients' phenotype, fibroblasts from slowly progressing patients could be separated from rapidly progressing patients by increase in sulfamidase activity when cultured at 30 °C (p < 0.001, sensitivity = 96%, specificity = 93%)., Interpretation: Phenotypic severity strongly correlates with the potential to increase sulfamidase activity in fibroblasts cultured at 30 °C, allowing reliable distinction between patients with rapidly progressing or slowly progressing phenotypes. This method may provide an essential tool for assessment of treatment effects and for health care and life planning decisions. Ann Neurol 2017;82:686-696., (© 2017 The Authors Annals of Neurology published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American Neurological Association.)

Background: The autosomal recessive, neurodegenerative disorder mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIB (MPSIIIB) is caused by a deficiency of the lysosomal enzyme N-acetyl-α-glucosaminidase (NAGLU), resulting in accumulation of heparan sulfate. The disease spectrum comprises a severe, rapidly progressing (RP) phenotype and a more attenuated, slowly progressing (SP) phenotype. Previous studies showed significantly higher NAGLU activity in skin fibroblasts of SP patients when cultured at 30°C which may be relevant for development of novel therapeutic strategies. Here we report on the processes involved in this phenomenon., Methods: Fibroblasts from controls, one RP patient (homozygous for the p.R297* mutation) and three SP MPSIIIB patients (homozygous for the mutation p.S612G or p.R643C, or compound heterozygous for the mutations p.A72&#95;G79dup8 and p.R565Q) were cultured at temperatures ranging from 37°C to 27°C and harvested at different time points to assess NAGLU activity, mRNA and protein levels, and NAGLU glycosylation. Intracellular localization of wild-type and mutant mCherry-tagged NAGLU was analyzed by immunofluorescence., Results: In control fibroblasts NAGLU was present as a 85kDa precursor and a 82kDa mature form. In SP patients' fibroblasts cultured at 37°C, only the 85kDa form was detected. Culturing at lower temperatures resulted in higher NAGLU mRNA levels, increased levels of both precursor and mature NAGLU protein and improved processing. The formation of mature NAGLU corresponded with higher NAGLU activity levels., Conclusion: We show that the NAGLU protein consists of a precursor and a mature form and that in SP MPSIIIB patients' fibroblasts only the precursor protein is present at 37°C. Culturing at lower temperatures resulted in the formation of the mature, enzymatically active form, due to higher mRNA levels and improved processing., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Mucopolysaccharidosis type III is a progressive, neurodegenerative lysosomal storage disorder for which there is currently no effective therapy. Though numerous potential therapies are in development, there are several challenges to conducting clinical research in this area. We seek to make recommendations on the approach to clinical research in MPS III, including the selection of outcome measures and trial endpoints, in order to improve the quality and impact of research in this area., Results: An international workshop involving academic researchers, clinical experts and industry groups was held in June 2015, with presentations and discussions on disease pathophysiology, biomarkers, potential therapies and clinical outcome measures. A set of recommendations was subsequently prepared by a working group and reviewed by all delegates. We present a series of 11 recommendations regarding the conduct of clinical research, outcome measures and management of natural history data in Mucopolysaccharidosis type III., Conclusions: Improving the quality of clinical research in Mucopolysaccharidosis type III will require an open, collaborative and systematic approach between academic researchers, clinicians and industry. Natural history data should be published as soon as possible and ideally collated in a central repository. There should be agreement on outcome measures and instruments for evaluation of clinical outcomes to maximise the effectiveness of current and future clinical research.

Sanfilippo B syndrome is a progressive neurological disorder caused by inability to catabolize heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans. We studied neurobehavior in male Sanfilippo B mice and heterozygous littermate controls from 16 to 20 weeks of age. Affected mice showed reduced anxiety, with a decrease in the number of stretch-attend postures during the elevated plus maze (p=0.001) and an increased tendency to linger in the center of an open field (p=0.032). Water maze testing showed impaired spatial learning, with reduced preference for the target quadrant (p=0.01). In radial arm maze testing, affected mice failed to achieve above-chance performance in a win-shift working memory task (t-test relative to 50% chance: p=0.289), relative to controls (p=0.037). We found a 12.4% reduction in mean acetylcholinesterase activity (p<0.001) and no difference in choline acetyltransferase activity or acetylcholine in whole brain of affected male animals compared to controls. Cholinergic pathways are affected in adult-onset dementias, including Alzheimer disease. Our results suggest that male Sanfilippo B mice display neurobehavioral deficits at a relatively early age, and that as in adult dementias, they may display deficits in cholinergic pathways., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIC (MPSIIIC) is a severe lysosomal storage disease caused by deficiency in activity of the transmembrane enzyme heparan-α-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase (HGSNAT) that catalyses the N-acetylation of α-glucosamine residues of heparan sulfate. Enzyme deficiency causes abnormal substrate accumulation in lysosomes, leading to progressive and severe neurodegeneration, somatic pathology and early death. There is no cure for MPSIIIC, and development of new therapies is challenging because of the unfeasibility of cross-correction. In this study, we generated a new mouse model of MPSIIIC by targeted disruption of the Hgsnat gene. Successful targeting left LacZ expression under control of the Hgsnat promoter, allowing investigation into sites of endogenous expression, which was particularly prominent in the CNS, but was also detectable in peripheral organs. Signs of CNS storage pathology, including glycosaminoglycan accumulation, lysosomal distension, lysosomal dysfunction and neuroinflammation were detected in 2-month-old animals and progressed with age. Glycosaminoglycan accumulation and ultrastructural changes were also observed in most somatic organs, but lysosomal pathology seemed most severe in liver. Furthermore, HGSNAT-deficient mice had altered locomotor and exploratory activity and shortened lifespan. Hence, this animal model recapitulates human MPSIIIC and provides a useful tool for the study of disease physiopathology and the development of new therapeutic approaches., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing or financial interests., (© 2016. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

Purpose: To report longitudinal phenotypic findings in a patient with Sanfilippo syndrome type IIIA, harboring SGSH mutations, one of which is novel., Methods: Heparan-N-sulfatidase enzyme function testing in skin fibroblasts and white blood cells and SGSH gene sequencing were obtained. Clinical office examinations, examinations under anesthesia, electroretinogram, spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), and fundus photography were performed over a 5-year period., Results: Fundus examination revealed a progressive breadcrumb-like pigmentary retinopathy with perifoveal pigmentary involvement. SD-OCT showed loss of normal neuroretinal lamination and cystic macular changes responsive to treatment with carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Electroretinography exhibited complex characteristics indicative of a generalized retinal rod > cone dysfunction with significant ON > OFF postreceptoral response compromise. Sequencing revealed compound heterozygous mutations in the SGSH gene, the novel c.88G > C (p.A30P) change and a second, previously reported one (c.734G > A, p.R245H)., Conclusions: We have identified ocular features of a patient with Sanfilippo syndrome type IIIA harboring a novel SGHS mutation that were not previously known to occur in this disease - namely, a progressive retinopathy with distinctive features, cystic macular changes responsive to carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, and complex electroretinographic abnormalities consistent with postreceptoral dysfunction. SD-OCT imaging revealed retinal lamination changes consistent with previously reported histologic studies. Both the SD-OCT and the electroretinogram changes appear attributable to intraretinal deposition of heparan sulfate.

Purpose: Retinal degeneration is a common feature of several lysosomal storage disorders, including the mucopolysaccharidoses, a group of metabolic disorders that is characterized by widespread accumulation of glycosaminoglycans due to lysosomal enzyme dysfunction. We used a new mouse model of mucopolysaccharidosis IIIE to study the effect of Arylsulfatase G (ARSG) deficiency on retina integrity., Methods: The retina of Arsg knockout mice aged 1 to 24 months was studied by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. Electron microscopic analyses were performed on retinas from 15- and 22-month-old animals. Photoreceptor and microglia cell numbers and retina thickness were determined to quantitatively characterize retinal degeneration in ARSG-deficient mice., Results: Arsg knockout mice showed a progressive degeneration of photoreceptor cells starting between 1 and 6 months of age, resulting in the loss of more than 50% of photoreceptor cells in 24-month-old mice. Photoreceptor loss was accompanied by reactive astrogliosis, reactive microgliosis that was evident in the outer but not inner retina, and elevated expression levels of some lysosomal proteins. Electron microscopic analyses of retinas revealed no evidence for the presence of storage vacuoles. Of note, expression of ARSG protein in wild-type mice was detectable only in the RPE which, however, appeared morphologically unaffected in knockout mice at the electron microscopic level., Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating that ARSG deficiency results in progressive photoreceptor degeneration and dysregulation of various lysosomal proteins.

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP), the most common form of inherited retinal degeneration, is clinically and genetically heterogeneous and can appear as syndromic or non-syndromic. Mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIC (MPS IIIC) is a lethal disorder, caused by mutations in the heparan-alpha-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase (HGSNAT) gene and characterized by progressive neurological deterioration, with retinal degeneration as a prominent feature. We identified HGSNAT mutations in six patients with non-syndromic RP. Whole exome sequencing (WES) in an Ashkenazi Jewish Israeli RP patient revealed a novel homozygous HGSNAT variant, c.370A>T, which leads to partial skipping of exon 3. Screening of 66 Ashkenazi RP index cases revealed an additional family with two siblings homozygous for c.370A>T. WES in three Dutch siblings with RP revealed a complex HGSNAT variant, c.[398G>C; 1843G>A] on one allele, and c.1843G>A on the other allele. HGSNAT activity levels in blood leukocytes of patients were reduced compared with healthy controls, but usually higher than those in MPS IIIC patients. All patients were diagnosed with non-syndromic RP and did not exhibit neurological deterioration, or any phenotypic features consistent with MPS IIIC. Furthermore, four of the patients were over 60 years old, exceeding by far the life expectancy of MPS IIIC patients. HGSNAT is highly expressed in the mouse retina, and we hypothesize that the retina requires higher HGSNAT activity to maintain proper function, compared with other tissues associated with MPS IIIC, such as the brain. This report broadens the spectrum of phenotypes associated with HGSNAT mutations and highlights the critical function of HGSNAT in the human retina., (© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press.)

Gene therapy is an attractive tool for the treatment of monogenic disorders, in particular for lysosomal storage diseases (LSD) caused by deficiencies in secretable lysosomal enzymes in which neither full restoration of normal enzymatic activity nor transduction of all affected cells are necessary. However, some LSD such as Mucopolysaccharidosis Type IIIB (MPSIIIB) are challenging because the disease's main target organ is the brain and enzymes do not efficiently cross the blood-brain barrier even if present at very high concentration in circulation. To overcome these limitations, we delivered AAV9 vectors encoding for α-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAGLU) to the Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) of MPSIIIB mice with the disease already detectable at biochemical, histological and functional level. Restoration of enzymatic activity in Central Nervous System (CNS) resulted in normalization of glycosaminoglycan content and lysosomal physiology, resolved neuroinflammation and restored the pattern of gene expression in brain similar to that of healthy animals. Additionally, transduction of the liver due to passage of vectors to the circulation led to whole-body disease correction. Treated animals also showed reversal of behavioural deficits and extended lifespan. Importantly, when the levels of enzymatic activity were monitored in the CSF of dogs following administration of canine NAGLU-coding vectors to animals that were either naïve or had pre-existing immunity against AAV9, similar levels of activity were achieved, suggesting that CNS efficacy would not be compromised in patients seropositive for AAV9. Our studies provide a strong rationale for the clinical development of this novel therapeutic approach as the treatment for MPSIIIB., (© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Deficiency of arylsulfatase G (ARSG) leads to a lysosomal storage disease in mice resembling biochemical and pathological features of the mucopolysaccharidoses and particularly features of mucopolysaccharidosis type III (Sanfilippo syndrome). Here we show that Arsg KO mice share common neuropathological findings with other Sanfilippo syndrome models and patients, but they can be clearly distinguished by the limitation of most phenotypic alterations to the cerebellum, presenting with ataxia as the major neurological finding. We determined in detail the expression of ARSG in the central nervous system and observed highest expression in perivascular macrophages (which are characterized by abundant vacuolization in Arsg KO mice) and oligodendrocytes. To gain insight into possible mechanisms leading to ataxia, the pathology in older adult mice (>12 months) was investigated in detail. This study revealed massive loss of Purkinje cells and gliosis in the cerebellum, and secondary accumulation of glycolipids like GM2 and GM3 gangliosides and unesterified cholesterol in surviving Purkinje cells, as well as neurons of some other brain regions. The abundant presence of ubiquitin and p62-positive aggregates in degenerating Purkinje cells coupled with the absence of significant defects in macroautophagy is consistent with lysosomal membrane permeabilization playing a role in the pathogenesis of Arsg-deficient mice and presumably Sanfilippo disease in general. Our data delineating the phenotype of mucopolysaccharidosis IIIE in a mouse KO model should help in the identification of possible human cases of this disease., (© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Intracerebrospinal fluid (CSF) infusion of replacement enzyme is under evaluation for amelioration of disease-related symptoms and biomarker changes in patients with the lysosomal storage disorder mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIA (MPS IIIA; www.clinicaltrials.gov ; NCT#01155778; #01299727). Determining the optimal dose/dose-frequency is important, given the invasive method for chronically supplying recombinant protein to the brain, the main site of symptom generation. To examine these variables, we utilised MPS IIIA Huntaway dogs, providing recombinant human sulphamidase (rhSGSH) to young pre-symptomatic dogs from an age when MPS IIIA dog brain exhibits significant accumulation of primary (heparan sulphate) and secondary (glycolipid) substrates. Enzyme was infused into CSF via the cisterna magna at one of two doses (3 mg or 15 mg/infusion), with the higher dose supplied at two different intervals; fortnightly or monthly. Euthanasia was carried out 24 h after the final injection. Dose- and frequency-dependent reductions in heparan sulphate were observed in CSF and deeper layers of cerebral cortex. When we examined the amount of immunostaining of the general endo/lysosomal marker, LIMP-2, or quantified activated microglia, the higher fortnightly dose resulted in superior outcomes in affected dogs. Secondary lesions such as accumulation of GM3 ganglioside and development of GAD-reactive axonal spheroids were treated to a similar degree by both rhSGSH doses and dose frequencies. Our findings indicate that the lower fortnightly dose is sub-optimal for ameliorating existing and preventing further development of disease-related pathology in young MPS IIIA dog brain; however, increasing the dose fivefold but halving the frequency of administration enabled near normalisation of disease-related biomarkers.