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High Salinity Shelf Water (HSSW) is a precursor to Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW), a water mass that facilitates the sequestration of atmospheric heat and carbon into the deep ocean. The salinity of HSSW in the Ross Sea is sensitive to both local and broader regional forcing, with implications for the density of downstream AABW and the ocean’s ability to buffer against climate change. One poorly constrained source of HSSW variability in this region is its rate of production within Terra Nova Bay (TNB) in the western Ross Sea. Here, we use an unprecedented set of near-surface salinity, current velocity, and acoustic surface tracking timeseries, collected from a mooring in TNB in austral winter 2017, to estimate HSSW production rates. In one of few studies at the resolution of individual katabatic wind events, we find that HSSW production rates correlate with katabatic wind event frequency in early winter and with frequency, strength, and duration in late winter, suggesting a complex dependence on polynya dynamics. We calculate an average HSSW production rate of ~0.6 Sverdrups (106 m3 s-1)that allows us to validate an approach for estimating production rates from parametrized net surface heat fluxes, which we use to examine interannual variability in production rates across the decade. Though further mooring-based estimates are needed for confirmation, results suggest HSSW production in TNB has been mostly increasing since 2015 and could play a previously unrecognized role in the recently observed recovery of HSSW salinity in this region.

Ice melting beneath Antarctic ice shelves is caused by heat transfer through the ice-shelf–ocean boundary layer (IOBL). However, our understanding of the fluid dynamics and thermohaline physics of the IOBL flow is poor. In this study, we utilize a large-eddy simulation (LES) model to investigate ocean dynamics and the role of turbulence within the IOBL flow near the ice front. To simulate the varying turbulence intensities, we imposed different theoretical profiles of the velocity. Far-field ocean conditions for the melting at the ice-shelf base and freezing at the sea surface were derived based on in situ observations of temperature and salinity near the ice front of the Nansen Ice Shelf. In terms of overturning features near the ice front, we validated the LES simulation results by comparing them with the in situ observational data. In the comparison of the velocity profiles to shipborne lowered acoustic Doppler current profiler (LADCP) data, the LES-derived strength of the overturning cells is similar to that obtained from the observational data. Moreover, the vertical distribution of the simulated temperature and salinity, which were mainly determined by the positively buoyant meltwater and sea-ice formation, was also comparable to that of the observations. We conclude that the IOBL flow near the ice front and its contribution to the ocean dynamics can be realistically resolved using our proposed method. Based on validated 3D-LES results, we revealed that the main forces of ocean dynamics near the ice front are driven by positively buoyant meltwater, concentrated salinity at the sea surface, and outflowing momentum of the sub-ice-shelf plume. Moreover, in the strong-turbulence case, distinct features such as a higher basal melt rate (0.153 m yr−1), weak upwelling of the positively buoyant ice-shelf water, and a higher sea-ice formation were observed, suggesting a relatively high speed current within the IOBL because of highly turbulent mixing. The findings of this study will contribute toward a deeper understanding of the complex IOBL-flow physics and its impact on the ocean dynamics near the ice front.

Terra Nova Bay in Antarctica is a formation region for high-salinity shelf water (HSSW), which is a major source of Antarctic Bottom Water. Here, we analyze spatiotemporal salinity variability in Terra Nova Bay with implications for the local HSSW production. The salinity variations in the Drygalski Basin and eastern Terra Nova Bay near Crary Bank in the Ross Sea were investigated by analyzing hydrographic data from instrumented moorings, vessel-based profiles, and available wind and sea-ice products. Near-bed salinity in the eastern Terra Nova Bay (∼660 m) and Drygalski Basin (∼1200 m) increases each year beginning in September. Significant salinity increases (>0.04) were observed in 2016 and 2017, which is likely related to active HSSW formation. According to velocity data at identical depths, the salinity increase from September was primarily due to advection of the HSSW originating from the coastal region of the Nansen Ice Shelf. In addition, we show that HSSW can also be formed locally in the upper water column ( m) of the eastern Terra Nova Bay through convection supplied by brine from the surface, which is related to polynya development via winds and ice freezing. While the general consensus is that the salinity of the HSSW was decreasing from 1995 to the late 2000s in the region, the salinity has been increasing since 2016. In 2018, it returned to values comparable to those in the early 2000s.

Accurate prediction of sea level rise requires detailed understanding of processes contributing to ice sheet mass loss. Antarctica’s ice shelves are thinning, resulting in enhanced flow of grounded ice due to weakened ice shelf buttressing. Glaciers feeding ice shelves with the highest melt rates are also experiencing some of the most rapid grounding zone retreat. However, these ice shelf melt rates reach values that cannot be explained by ocean forcing alone and are not reproduced in ocean models. We present subglacial hydrology model outputs for four major Antarctic glaciers (Pine Island, Thwaites, Totten and Denman), which flow through the deepest and most extensive Antarctic marine subglacial basins and feed rapidly thinning ice shelves. We show that the areas of high ice shelf melting rates and grounding line retreat coincide closely with areas of high subglacial discharge. We posit that the subglacial discharge provides the missing component driving the high melt rates, and identify positive feedbacks between ice dynamics, steepening of ice shelf basal slope, and subglacial outflow. If surface temperatures increase as expected in Antarctica over the coming decades, surface meltwater could flow to the ice sheet base, as observed in Greenland. The surface meltwater hydrological cycle could therefore contribute to seasonal variations in subglacial meltwater and ice shelf basal melt, leading to accelerated grounding line retreat into Antarctica’s deepest subglacial basins. Invoking these feedbacks could reconcile sea level records and ice sheet model simulations that remain overly stable in warmer periods.

The role of the refreezing effect in the ice shelf–ocean boundary layer (IOBL) flow with a super-cooled, plume beneath the ice shelf is investigated using the large-eddy simulation. To reveal the detailed physical processes and characteristics of the IOBL flow, a model domain is initialized and forced by in situ observations and a comparison is made between two simulations, one with the refreezing effect and one without. The simulated velocity, potential temperature, and salinity field are validated with in situ observations performed in Terra Nova Bay in the western Ross Sea in 2016/2017, confirming that the vertical structures in the simulation results agree well with observations. In particular, it is evident that, when the refreezing effect is considered, the IOBL flow can be more realistically resolved, especially upward advection from the sub-ice shelf plume and the ice front eddy. Beneath the ice shelf, two district regions (the inner and outer regions) are identified based on flow characteristics and the refreezing pattern. In the inner region, stratification and stable conditions are observed with negative momentum flux and low refreezing rates. Meanwhile, in the outer region, high shear impact and unstable conditions with a heat flux of −9 to −52 W m−2 are observed, demonstrating the high refreezing rate and the entrainment of super-cooled water from the sub-ice shelf plume. A total of 94 % of the refreezing events occur in the outer region, with a maximum refreezing rate of 1.86 m yr−1 at the ice front.

The formation of High-Salinity Shelf Water (HSSW), which is the major source of Antarctic bottom water (AABW), has been observed in Terra Nova Bay (TNB) in Antarctica. We believe a description of the spatio-temporal variation of salinity in TNB would help understand the production of HSSW in the region. Hence, the aim of this study is to investigate salinity variations in the Drygalski Basin (DB) and eastern TNB close to Crary Bank of the Ross Sea. For this, we use the moored and profiled hydrographic data, as well as available wind and sea-ice products. We found that deep-ocean salinity in the eastern TNB (~ 660 m) and DB (~ 1200 m) increases each year starting in September, and large amounts of salinity increase (> 0.04) were observed in 2016 and 2017. According to the velocity data observed at the same depths, the increases in salinity from September were due to the advection of HSSW from the coastal region of the Nansen ice shelf (NIS). The significant increases in salinity are related to the formation of active HSSW, evidence of which can be found from the HSSW properties obtained in February 2017 and March 2018. In addition, we show that HSSW can locally formed in the upper layer (

Long-term variability of nonseasonal ocean heat content (OHC) in the upper 500 m in the East/Japan Sea (EJS) exhibits a distinct east-west contrast during the recent 30 years. The contrasting OHC variations are revisited and investigated more in detail by analyzing two observational data sets, the gridded data from 1976 to 2007 and in situ data from 1976 to 2011 in the southwestern EJS that covers the zone of western boundary current. The OHC variability shows in-phase and predominant decadal variation in both east and west regions before 1995, but uncorrelated and predominant interannual variations after 1995. Heaving effects due to major branches of warm currents in the EJS, the East Korea Warm Current (EKWC) in the western part and other two branches in the eastern part, mainly contribute to the OHC variations. The heaving effect in the western EJS is shown to be associated with changes in winter wind-stress curl field in the northern EJS. Weakening of the subpolar gyre due to weakening of positive wind-stress curl in the Japan Basin related with wintertime Western Pacific teleconnection pattern and Siberian High appears to enhance the northward penetration of the EKWC resulting in an increase of OHC in the western EJS. The heaving effect in the eastern EJS is significantly correlated with the Siberian High, but the causative mechanism is inconclusive. This study also demonstrates the importance of using highly resolved data sets for areas affected by strong and narrow boundary currents in computing and understanding the OHC variability.

SKYNET and Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) retrieved aerosol single scattering albedo (SSA) values of four sites, Chiba (Japan), Pune (India), Valencia (Spain), and Seoul (Korea), were compared to understand the factors behind often noted large SSA differences between them. SKYNET and AERONET algorithms are found to produce nearly same SSAs for similarity in input data, suggesting that SSA differences between them are primarily due to quality of input data due to different calibration and/or observation protocols as well as difference in quality assurance criteria. The most plausible reason for high SSAs in SKYNET is found to be underestimated calibration constant for sky radiance (ΔΩ). The disk scan method (scan area: 1° × 1° area of solar disk) of SKYNET is noted to produce stable wavelength-dependent ΔΩ values in comparison to those determined from the integrating sphere used by AERONET to calibrate sky radiance. Aerosol optical thickness (AOT) difference between them can be the next important factor for their SSA difference, if AOTs between them are not consistent. Inconsistent values of surface albedo while analyzing data of SKYNET and AERONET can also bring SSA difference between them, but the effect of surface albedo is secondary. The aerosol nonsphericity effect is found to be less important for SSA difference between these two networks.

The East Sea (Japan Sea), a small marginal sea in the northwestern Pacific, is ventilated deeply down to the bottom and sensitive to changing surface conditions. Addressing the response of this marginal sea to the hydrological cycle and atmospheric forcing would be helpful for better understanding present and future environmental changes in oceans at the global and regional scales. Here, we present an analysis of observations revealing a slowdown of the long-term deepening in water boundaries associated with changes of water formation rate. Our results indicate that bottom (central) water formation has been enhanced (reduced) with more (less) oxygen supply to the bottom (central) layer since the 2000s. This paper presents a new projection that allows a three-layered deep structure, which retains bottom water, at least until 2040, contrasting previous results. This projection considers recent increase of slope convections mainly due to the salt supply via air-sea freshwater exchange and sea ice formation and decrease of open-ocean convections evidenced by reduced mixed layer depth in the northern East Sea, resulting in more bottom water and less central water formations. Such vigorous changes in water formation and ventilation provide certain implications on future climate changes.