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Abstract Background In Pakistan, the death rate for post-menopausal women with breast cancer is significant due to late detection and delayed referral to proper facilities. There are a few reports on Pakistan’s epidemiology and breast cancer risk factors. There are modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors associated with the development of breast carcinoma; of which body mass index (BMI), central obesity, and lipid profile are considered as major risk markers. Methods This was a cross-sectional analytical study. A total of 384 women constituted the present study sample. Purposive sampling was used to collect 192 confirmed new breast cancer cases throughout the study. By using basic random sampling, an equal number of controls were chosen. Studied parameters included age, fasting blood sugar, cholesterol, triglyceride, serum high-density lipoprotein, cholesterol, serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, weight, height, BMI, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio. The inclusion criteria of this study were post-menopausal women (45–65 years) in Pakistan. The confirmation of breast carcinoma was done through histopathology. Breast cancer occurrence was taken as a dependent variable, whereas BMI, central obesity, and lipid profile were taken as independent variables. Results Studied risk factors (cholesterol, BMI, and central obesity) significantly correlated with breast cancer. Cholesterol has a significantly high positive correlation (0.646) with breast cancer. BMI has a positive significant correlation (0.491) with breast cancer, and central obesity has a low but positive significant correlation (0.266) with breast cancer. Moreover, the binary logistic regression model also showed a significant association between biochemical factors and breast cancer occurrence. Regression analysis depicted a linear relationship between a dependent variable (breast cancer occurrence) and independent variables (central obesity, cholesterol, BMI). Conclusion Postmenopausal overweight (central obesity), increased BMI and high cholesterol levels are major risk factors for breast cancer. Moreover, high total cholesterol proved to be the most significant risk marker for the occurrence of breast cancer in post-menopausal women of Pakistan.

Abstract Background Vitamin D can influence more than 200 genes in various tissues showing its credibility among the fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin D deficiency is directly proportional to major clinical conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, malignancy, and multiple sclerosis. This study was conducted to determine the vitamin D level of individuals and its association with depression. Methods Vitamin D levels of 100 healthy and 100 depressed subjects were determined. The isolated subjects were screened on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scale and divided into three groups according to their age. Group-I comprised subjects of age 20 years and below, Group-II included subjects of age 21 to 60, and Group-III comprised subjects of ≥ 61 years of age. A sufficient level of vitamin D in normal subjects was noted, while mild deficiency of vitamin D status was observed in depressed subjects. Results Our study has reported a higher percentage of vitamin D deficiency in the Peshawar region. The results of our study indicated that depression was common in individuals having vitamin D deficiency. Conclusions The study showed a very high frequency of vitamin D deficiency in subjects with depression in Peshawar, Pakistan. The deficiency of vitamin D was observed more in females as compared to males. Further studies should explicate whether the highly widespread vitamin D deficiency could be cost-effectively treated as part of preventive or treatment interventions for depression.