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Introduction: Myocardial calcifications (MC) represent a relatively rare pathological process, which may accompany different cardiovascular conditions and can be broadly categorized as dystrophic or metastatic. Myocardial infarction (MI) has been traditionally regarded as the main cause of MC overall; however, no updated comprehensive data on the relative incidence of different forms of MC is available. The purpose of this systematic review of the literature is to analyze the currently available evidence on MC in terms of pathophysiology, diagnosis, and clinical presentation., Methods and Results: A total of 241 studies including a total of 368 patients affected by extensive MC were included in the final review. The majority of patients (69.8%) presented with dystrophic MC. Endomyocardial fibrosis (EMF) represents the single most common etiology of MC (24.2%), while sepsis/acute systemic inflammatory syndrome (SIRS) and chronic kidney disease were identified as the second and third most common causes respectively. The relative incidence of etiologies also varies across the years, with MI being more represented before 1990, and sepsis/SIRS becoming the single most common cause of MC after 1990. Multimodality imaging was used in the work-up of MC in 42.7% of cases. The most commonly employed imaging modality overall was echocardiography (51.9%), while after 1990 computed tomography scan became the most widely used tool (70.1%)., Conclusion: The present systematic review provides new insights into the pathophysiology of MC. Previously thought to be mainly a consequence of ischemic heart disease, our data indicate that other diseases, namely EMF and sepsis/SIRS, are indeed the main conditions associated with MC. The importance of multimodality imaging in the work-up of MC is also highlighted., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (© 2024 Sozzi, Gnan, Faggiano, Giangiacomi, Iacuzio, Canetta, Santangelo, Pisaniello, Eker and Carugo.)

Background: Coronary artery disease (CAD) is associated with perioperative liver transplantation (LT) mortality. In absence of a defined risk algorithm, we aimed to test whether stress echocardiography and coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) could detect CAD in end-stage liver disease (ESLD) patients without previous evidence of heart disease., Methods: LT candidates ≥30 years underwent a cardiovascular (CV) assessment through stress echocardiography. CCTA was performed in patients ≥50 years with two or more CV risk factors (e.g. diabetes, CAD family history, dyslipidaemia). Coronary angiography (CAG) was scheduled when stress echocardiography and/or CCTA were positive. Sensibility, specificity, positive and negative predictive values of stress echocardiography and CCTA were assessed by numbers of coronary revascularization (true positives) and lack of acute coronary events over a mean follow-up of 3 years (true negatives)., Results: Stress echocardiography was performed in 273 patients, CCTA in 34 and CAG in 41. Eight patients had critical coronary lesions, and 19 not-critical lesions. Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values were 50.0%, 90.2%, 13.3% and 98.4% for stress echocardiography and 100%, 76.7%, 36.4% and 100% for CCTA. Among 163 patients who underwent LT (57.6%), 16 died and 5 had major adverse CV events over a mean follow-up of 3 years., Conclusions: A very low prevalence of CAD in a selected population of ESLD at intermediate to high CV risk was found. A screening based on stress echocardiography and CCTA resulted in low incidence of post-LT acute coronary events in ELSD patients. CAD has no impact on mid-term survival.

Background: Available reports on the post-discharge management of atrial fibrillation (AF) in COVID-19 patients are scarce. The aim of this case series was to describe the clinical outcomes of new-onset AF in COVID-19 patients referred to a tertiary cardiac arrhythmia center after hospital discharge., Methods: All consecutive patients referred to our center for an ambulatory evaluation from 18 May 2020 to 15 March 2022 were retrospectively screened. Patients were included in the current analysis if new-onset AF was diagnosed during hospitalization for COVID-19 and then referred to our clinic., Results: Among 946 patients, 23 (2.4%) were evaluated for new-onset AF during COVID-19. The mean age of the study cohort was 71.5 ± 8.1 years; 87.0% were male. Median time from COVID-19 discharge and the first ambulatory evaluation was 53 (41.5-127) days; median follow-up time was 175 (83-336) days. At the in-office evaluation, 14 (60.9%) patients were in sinus rhythm, and nine patients were in AF. In 13.0% of cases, oral anticoagulation was stopped according to CHADS-VASc. Eight patients in AF were scheduled for electrical cardioversion; one patient was rate-controlled. Four patients were treated with catheter ablation (CA) during follow-up. Two post-cardioversion AF recurrences were detected during follow-up, while no recurrences were diagnosed among patients who underwent CA., Conclusion: Our data suggest that AF may not be considered as a simple bystander of the in-hospital COVID-19 course. Management of new-onset AF in post-COVID-19 patients referred to our clinic did not significantly differ from our usual practice, both in terms of long-term oral anticoagulation and in terms of rhythm control strategy.

Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the myocardium with focal or diffuse involvement. Viral infections are the most common cause of myocarditis, especially in Western countries. A recent viral illness with gastroenteric or upper respiratory symptoms often precedes myocarditis. The absence of specific pathognomonic features in conjunction with the wide spectrum of clinical manifestations that range from subclinical cases to sudden cardiac death (SCD) makes myocarditis diagnosis particularly challenging. Moreover, myocarditis might represent a cause of initially unexplained dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and heart failure (HF), especially among children and young adults. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) is crucial for myocarditis diagnosis, because of its ability to detect interstitial edema during acute inflammation. Assessment of subepicardial or mid-myocardial fibrosis by late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) is typical for myocarditis. Cardiac arrhythmias are frequent events that may arise especially in more severe myocarditis cases. The most common form of arrhythmia is atrial fibrillation, followed by ventricular tachycardia. Documented arrhythmias have been reported more commonly with HIV myocarditis than other more common infections such as Adenovirus, Parvovirus B19, human Herpes virus 6, and Enterovirus. The mechanisms of arrhythmogenesis in myocardial inflammation are not fully understood; in the acute phase, the spectrum of arrhythmogenesis ranges from a direct effect on cardiomyocytes that leads to electrical instability and ion channel impairment to ischemia from coronary macro- or microvascular disease. In chronic myocarditis, instead, myocardial replacement with fibrosis promotes scar-mediated re-entrant ventricular arrhythmias. Observational data suggested the important role of CMR, with LGE being the strongest independent predictor of SCD, cardiac, and all-cause mortality. In acute myocarditis, the most common localization of subepicardial LGE dwells in the lateral wall. Patients with myocarditis that develop HF and arrhythmias usually show a larger LGE distribution involving several myocardial segments. Moreover, a mid-layer LGE in the interventricular septum is more frequent in acute myocarditis than in acute coronary syndromes cases. The risk of SCD in patients with wide areas of LGE is significant, and a shared decision-making approach is warranted. Nevertheless, there is no formal consensus about the extension of LGE to justify implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) implantation in primary prevention., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Sozzi, Gherbesi, Faggiano, Gnan, Maruccio, Schiavone, Iacuzio and Carugo.)

Cardiomyopathies (CMPs) are diseases of the heart muscle. They include a variety of myocardial disorders that manifest with various structural and functional phenotypes and are frequently genetic. Myocardial disease caused by known cardiovascular causes (such as hypertension, ischemic heart disease, or valvular disease) should be distinguished from CMPs for classification and management purposes. Identification of various CMP phenotypes relies primarily upon echocardiographic evaluation. In selected cases, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) or computed tomography may be useful to identify and localize fatty infiltration, inflammation, scar/fibrosis, focal hypertrophy, and better visualize the left ventricular apex and right ventricle.  CMR imaging has emerged as a comprehensive tool for the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with CMPs. The accuracy and reproducibility in evaluating cardiac structures, the unique ability of non-invasive tissue characterization and the lack of ionizing radiation, make CMR very attractive as a potential "all-in-one technique". Indeed, it provides valuable data to confirm or establish the diagnosis, screen subclinical cases, identify aetiology, establish the prognosis. Additionally, it provides information for setting a risk stratification (based on evaluation of proved independent prognostic factors as ejection fraction, end-systolic-volume, myocardial fibrosis) and follow-up. Last, it helps to monitor the response to the therapy. In this review, the pivotal role of CMR in the comprehensive evaluation of patients with CMP is discussed, highlighting the key features guiding differential diagnosis and the assessment of prognosis.

Chronic heart failure (CHF) has different stages and includes pre-HF (PHF), a state of high risk of developing myocardial dysfunction and advanced CHF. Some major behavioral risk factors of PHF might predispose to biological risk factors such as obesity, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, hypertension, myocardial infarction, and cardiomyopathy. These risk factors damage the myocytes leading to fibrosis, apoptosis, cardiac hypertrophy, along with alterations in cardiomyocyte' size and shape. A condition of physiological subcellular remodeling resulting into a pathological state might be developed, conducting to PHF. Both PHF and heart failure (HF) are associated with the activation of phospholipases and protease, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and development of intra-cellular free Ca 2+  [Ca 2+ ] i overloading to an elevation in diastolic [Ca 2+ ] i . Simultaneously, cardiac gene expression is activated leading to further molecular, structural and biochemical changes of the myocardium. The sub-cellular remodeling may be intimately involved in the transition of cardiac hypertrophy to heart failure. 2D- and 3D-speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) have been used to quantify regional alterations of longitudinal strain and area strain, through their polar projection, which permits a further assessment of both sites and degrees of myocardial damage. The examination of strain can identify sub-clinical cardiac dysfunction or cardiomyocyte remodeling. During remodeling of the myocardium cardiac strain is attenuated, therefore it is an indicator of disease assessment., (© 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Complete atrioventricular block (CAVB) is a total dissociation between the atrial and ventricular activity, in the absence of atrioventricular conduction. Several diseases may result in CAVB in the pediatric and young-adult population. Permanent right ventricular (RV) pacing is required in permanent CAVB, when the cause is neither transient nor reversible. Continuous RV apical pacing has been associated with unfavorable outcomes in several studies due to the associated ventricular dyssynchrony. This study aims to summarize the current literature regarding CAVB in the pediatric and young adult population and to explore future treatment perspectives., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

A rare case of a spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD) in the postpartum of a 32-year-old woman is presented. Pregnancy-related SCAD is a potentially life-threatening condition. SCAD is triggered by nonatherosclerotic disease, typically affects young-aged women and is still often underdiagnosed. Cardiac magnetic resonance is crucial to demonstrate the ischemic origin of the disease. A conservative management is generally preferred in stable SCAD as most dissected segments will heal spontaneously over a few months. Additionally, the percutaneous coronary intervention is associated with high rate of complications and procedural failure. The aim of this case was to improve awareness of SCAD and to advise clinicians seeking aid with patient management., (© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

The coexistence of an atrial septal defect and a prominent eustachian valve is a rare congenital anomaly, rarely reported in literature. Differentiation between a giant eustachian valve and cor triatriatum dexter can be difficult. A case of a large atrial septal defect associated with cor triatriatum dexter diagnosed by echocardiography in an asymptomatic woman is reported. A watchful waiting strategy was adopted., (© 2017, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Coronary computed tomography angiography is a noninvasive heart imaging test currently undergoing rapid development and advancement. The high resolution of the three-dimensional pictures of the moving heart and great vessels is performed during a coronary computed tomography to identify coronary artery disease and classify patient risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. The technique provides useful information about the coronary tree and atherosclerotic plaques beyond simple luminal narrowing and plaque type defined by calcium content. This application will improve image-guided prevention, medical therapy, and coronary interventions. The ability to interpret coronary computed tomography images is of utmost importance as we develop personalized medical care to enable therapeutic interventions stratified on the bases of plaque characteristics. This overview provides available data and expert's recommendations in the utilization of coronary computed tomography findings. We focus on the use of coronary computed tomography to detect coronary artery disease and stratify patients at risk, illustrating the implications of this test on patient management. We describe its diagnostic power in identifying patients at higher risk to develop acute coronary syndrome and its prognostic significance. Finally, we highlight the features of the vulnerable plaques imaged by coronary computed tomography angiography., (© 2016, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: The purpose of the study was to determine the long-term prognostic value of normal adenosine stress cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) in patients referred for evaluation of myocardial ischemia., Methods: We reviewed 300 consecutive patients (age 65 ± 11 years, 74% male) with suspected or known coronary disease and normal wall motion who had undergone adenosine stress CMR negative for ischemia and scar. Most patients were at intermediate risk of coronary artery disease. The end points studied were all causes of mortality and major adverse cardiac events, including cardiac death, myocardial infarction, revascularization, and hospitalization for unstable angina., Results: During a mean follow-up of 5.5 years (mean = 5.4 ± 1.1), 16 patients died because of various causes (cardiac death in 5 patients). Three patients had a nonfatal myocardial infarction, 7 patients were hospitalized for revascularization, and 11 were medically treated for unstable angina. The annual cardiac event rate was 1.3% (0.78% in the first 3 years and 1.9% between the fourth and sixth years). The predictors of major adverse cardiac events in a multivariate analysis model were as follows: advanced age (hazard ratio [HR] 1.15, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.02-1.30), diabetes (HR 17.5, 95% CI 2.2-140), and the habit of smoking (HR 5.9, 95% CI 1.0-35.5). For all causes of mortality, the only predictor was diabetes (HR 11.4, 95% CI 1.76-74.2). Patients with normal stress CMR had an excellent outcome during the 3 years after the study. The cardiac event rate was higher between the fourth and sixth years., Conclusion: Over a 5.5-year period, a low event rate and excellent prognosis occurred in patients with normal adenosine stress CMR. Low- to intermediate-risk patients with a normal CMR are at low risk for subsequent cardiac events., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)