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[Purpose] Intensive training can at least partially improve finger movement dysfunction observed after stroke or any neurodegenerative disease. Wearable equipment can significantly improve patients' quality of life. However, long-term use of conventional training gloves containing metal can injure joints. In this study, we investigated the safety and efficacy of a novel, metal-free, wearable strength-building device. [Participants and Methods] We enrolled 20 healthy participants in whom we measured grip and pinch strength before and while the equipment was worn. Additionally, we investigated the adverse effects and discomfort experienced while participants wore the equipment. [Results] The grip strength was reduced by approximately 20% while participants wore the equipment. We did not observe any serious adverse events. [Conclusion] The knitting equipment described in this study resists movements associated with gripping the hand and acts on all fingers, and may be useful for rehabilitation to improve finger function during routine activities.

BackgroundProtein induced by vitamin K absence-II (PIVKA-II) is produced by the liver during hepatoma and upon warfarin administration. Those patients have disturbed protein synthesis and glycosylation in the liver. This decreases the number of γ-carboxyglutamyl (Gla) residues on prothrombin, converting prothrombin into PIVKA-II. The mechanism of this conversion, however, is not clearly understood.MethodsProthrombin was isolated from healthy and warfarin-treated individuals whose liver function of protein production was quantitatively normal. Glycan structures in the purified prothrombin containing PIVKA-II were qualitatively analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography after labeling the glycan with fluorophore 2-aminobenzamide.ResultsThe concentration of PIVKA-II was significantly higher in the warfarin-treated individuals than in the healthy individuals (PConclusionsWarfarin therapy leads to lower amounts of prothrombin and Gla residues within prothrombin without exerting qualitative and quantitative change in glycan profile and protein synthetic function in the liver.

Three new for science genera, i.e.: Erichansenia S. Y. Kondr., Kärnefelt et A. Thell for the ‘Caloplaca’ epithallina group of the subfamily Xanthorioideae, as well as Lendemeriella S. Y. Kondr. for the Caloplaca reptans group, and Pisutiella S. Y. Kondr., L. Lőkös et E. Farkas for the Caloplaca conversa group of the subfamily Caloplacoideae of the Teloschistaceae, are described on the basis of results of the three gene phylogeny of the Teloschistaceae based on nrITS, nrLSU and mtSSU sequences. Twenty-seven new combinations, i.e.: Erichansenia epithallina (for Caloplaca epithallina Lynge), Erichansenia cryodesertorum (for Shackletonia cryodesertorum Garrido-Ben., Søchting et Pérez-Ort.), Erichansenia sauronii (for Caloplaca sauronii Søchting et Øvstedal), Fauriea mandshuriaensis (for Caloplaca mandshuriaensis S. Y. Kondr., L. Lőkös et J.-S. Hur), Fauriea trassii (for Caloplaca trassii Galanina et S. Y. Kondr.), Lendemeriella borealis (for Lecanora pyracea f. borealis Vain.), Lendemeriella dakotensis (for Caloplaca dakotensis Wetmore), Lendemeriella exsecuta (for Lecanora exsecuta Nyl.), Lendemeriella lucifuga (for Caloplaca lucifuga G. Thor), Lendemeriella nivalis (for Zeora nivalis Körb.), Lendemeriella reptans (for Caloplaca reptans Lendemer et B. P. Hodk.), Lendemeriella sorocarpa (for Placodium sorocarpum Vain.), Lendemeriella tornoensis (for Caloplaca tornoensis H. Magn.), Pisutiella congrediens (for Lecanora congrediens Nyl.), Pisutiella conversa (for Callopisma conversum Kremp.), Pisutiella furax (for Caloplaca furax Egea et Llimona), Pisutiella grimmiae (for Lecanora grimmiae Nyl.), Pisutiella ivanpisutii (for Caloplaca ivanpisutii S. Y. Kondr., L. Lőkös et Hur), Pisutiella phaeothamnos (for Caloplaca phaeothamnos K. Kalb et J. Poelt), Pyrenodesmia aetnensis (for Caloplaca aetnensis B. de Lesd.), Pyrenodesmia albolutescens (for Lecanora albolutescens Nyl.), Pyrenodesmia aractina (for Parmelia aractina Fr.), Pyrenodesmia atroflava (for Lecidea atroflava Turner), Pyrenodesmia bicolor (for Caloplaca bicolor H. Magn.), Pyrenodesmia molariformis (for Caloplaca molariformis Frolov, Vondrák, Nadyeina et Khodos.), Pyrenodesmia neotaurica (for Caloplaca neotaurica Vondrák, Khodos., Arup et Søchting), Pyrenodesmia peliophylla (for Placodium peliophyllum Tuck.) are proposed based on results from a combined phylogenetic analysis using nrITS, nrLSU and mtSSU gene sequences.

Endolichenic fungi, nonobligate microfungi that live in lichen, are promising as new bioresources of pharmacological compounds. We found that norlichexanthone isolated from the endolichenic fungus in Pertusaria laeviganda exhibited high antioxidant activity. Norlichexanthone produced by endolichenic fungus had the antioxidant activity with same level of ascorbic acid. This is the first report of high antioxidant activity of norlichexanthone. Abbreviations: AAPH: 2,2ʹ-azobis (2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; FL: fluorescein sodium salt; HPLC-PDA: high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array; LC-ESI-MS: liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry; ORAC: oxygen radical absorbance capacity; PB: phosphate buffer; ROS: reactive oxygen species; TLC: thin-layer chromatography

In lichen symbiosis, polyol transfer from green algae is important for acquiring the fungal carbon source. However, the existence of polyol transporter genes and their correlation with lichenization remain unclear. Here, we report candidate polyol transporter genes selected from the genome of the lichen-forming fungus (LFF) Ramalina conduplicans. A phylogenetic analysis using characterized polyol and monosaccharide transporter proteins and hypothetical polyol transporter proteins of R. conduplicans and various ascomycetous fungi suggested that the characterized yeast’ polyol transporters form multiple clades with the polyol transporter-like proteins selected from the diverse ascomycetous taxa. Thus, polyol transporter genes are widely conserved among Ascomycota, regardless of lichen-forming status. In addition, the phylogenetic clusters suggested that LFFs belonging to Lecanoromycetes have duplicated proteins in each cluster. Consequently, the number of sequences similar to characterized yeast’ polyol transporters were evaluated using the genomes of 472 species or strains of Ascomycota. Among these, LFFs belonging to Lecanoromycetes had greater numbers of deduced polyol transporter proteins. Thus, various polyol transporters are conserved in Ascomycota and polyol transporter genes appear to have expanded during the evolution of Lecanoromycetes.

Six new for science species of lichen-forming fungi from Republic of Korea, Eastern Asia, i. e.: Bacidina jasonhuri J. P. Halda, S. Y. Kondr. et L. Lőkos, Gyalidea koreana J. P. Halda, S. Y. Kondr....

Although it is known that red blood cell (RBC) parameters and platelet count depend on ethnicity and sex, their reference intervals in healthy Asian populations are limited. The aim of this study was to establish reference intervals for RBC parameters and platelet count for healthy adults in Japan. A total of 750 healthy adults (447 women and 303 men; median age 40 years (18–67 years) at seven Japanese centers who participated in regular medical checkups entered this study. Their RBC parameters and platelet count were measured using automated hematocytometers. The reference intervals of the RBC parameters and platelet count according to sex in healthy adults were determined. There was an age-specific decrease in RBC counts and an age-specific increase in mean corpuscular volume in men. This study emphasizes the need to consider sex and age in the clinical use of reference intervals of RBC parameters.

Introduction While white blood cell (WBC) parameters have been suggested to depend on ethnicity and gender, reference intervals in healthy Asian populations are limited. The present study established reference intervals of WBC parameters for healthy adults in Japan. Methods A total of 750 healthy adults (447 women and 303 men; 18-67 years old, median 40 years old) at 7 Japanese centers who participated in regular medical checkups entered this study. The WBC parameters were measured using automated hematocytometers and blood film reviews by a manual microscopic examination. Results The reference intervals of the WBC parameters according to gender in healthy adults were determined. Age-specific decreases in WBC counts of both gender groups and in neutrophil counts of women were noted. Favorable correlations between the hematocytometer and microscopic methods were found in neutrophils, lymphocytes, and eosinophils but not in monocytes or basophils. Conclusion This study suggests the need to consider gender and age in the clinical use of reference intervals of WBC parameters.

The study of the reproductive biology of lichen fungal symbionts has been traditionally challenging due to their complex and symbiotic lifestyles. Against the common belief of haploidy, a recent genomic study found a triploid-like signal inLetharia. Here, we used genomic data from a pure culture and from thalli, together with a PCR survey of the MAT locus, to infer the genome organization and reproduction inLetharia. We found that the read count variation in the fourLethariaspecimens, including the pure culture derived from a single sexual spore ofL. lupina, is consistent with haploidy. By contrast, theL. lupinaread counts from a thallus’ metagenome are triploid-like. Characterization of the mating-type locus revealed a conserved heterothallic configuration across the genus, along with auxiliary genes that we identified. We found that the mating-type distributions are balanced in North America forL. vulpinaandL. lupina, suggesting widespread sexual reproduction, but highly skewed in Europe forL. vulpina, consistent with predominant asexuality. Taken together, we propose thatLethariafungi are heterothallic and typically haploid, and provide evidence that triploid-like individuals are rare hybrids betweenL. lupinaand an unknownLetharialineage, reconciling classic systematic and genetic studies with recent genomic observations.

Lichen secondary metabolites are known to be associated with heavy metal uptake and tolerance in lichens. Understanding the relationship between their secondary metabolites and heavy metals in them is important for clarifying the mechanisms of their heavy metal accumulation and tolerance. To determine the relationships between the concentrations of secondary metabolites and Cu in the Cu-hyperaccumulator lichen Stereocaulon japonicum and to clarify its response to Cu, we collected Cu-contaminated and uncontaminated samples of the lichen and determined relative concentrations of secondary metabolites and concentrations of Cu, K, glucose, and sugar alcohols in them. We found significant negative correlations between the relative concentrations of secondary metabolites-atranorin and stictic acid-and the concentration of Cu. These negative correlations can be interpreted in one of two ways: (a) S. japonicum itself reduced the relative concentrations of secondary metabolites in response to the increase of Cu concentration or (b) its carbon and energy metabolism was damaged by Cu stress, resulting in the reduction of the relative concentrations of secondary metabolites. The analysis of K, glucose, and sugar alcohols showed no effect of Cu on these concentrations, which means that the carbon and energy metabolism was not damaged by Cu stress. Therefore, the negative correlations can be interpreted that S. japonicum itself reduced the relative concentrations of secondary metabolites with the increase of Cu concentration. These findings provide a deeper understanding of the response of secondary metabolites to Cu in the lichen.

Distinguishing between IgG4-related disease (IgG4-RD) and hyper-interleukin (IL) -6 syndrome, such as immune mediated conditions, autoimmune diseases, and idiopathic multicentric Castleman disease (iMCD) is challenging. Here, we report the case of a 69-year-old man with cervical lymphadenopathy who was admitted to our hospital and histologically diagnosed with hyper-IL-6 syndrome mimicking IgG4-RD phenotypically. Laboratory data detected polyclonal hypergammaglobulinemia comprising IgG, including IgG4 (2,350 mg/dl). Computed tomography revealed presence of systemic lymphadenopathy, enlarged bilateral submandibular glands, and infiltrative shadow in the right lower lung. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed diffusely enlarged pancreas the size of a sausage and hypointense rim on T2, suggesting autoimmune pancreatitis as part of IgG4-RD. Biopsy of the cervical lymph node revealed proliferation of IL-6-positive mature plasma cells in the expanded interfollicular area with an elevated IgG4+/IgG+ cell ratio (approximately 70%). These histological findings were consistent with hyper-IL-6 syndrome rather than IgG4-RD; however, the serum IL-6 level was slightly elevated. Bone marrow aspiration detected both IgG4- and IL-6-positive mature plasma cells. Although this case cannot be diagnosed as IgG4-RD because it failed to meet its diagnostic criteria, administration of oral prednisolone (0.5 mg/kg) resulted in rapidly improved lymphadenopathy, enlarged pancreas, and serological findings. This report can be helpful for the diagnostic assessment of polyclonal hypergammaglobulinemia conditions.

A 73-year-old male with melena was admitted to our hospital. Computed tomography (CT) scan revealed the thickening of the jejunal and ileal walls and swelling of the mesenteric lymph nodes. Type II enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma (EATL) was diagnosed based on the pathological analysis of the resected specimen. Positron emission tomography and CT scan showed complete remission (CR) after surgery, and he further received CHOP therapy. However, 2 months after the completion of the therapy, the patient's disease relapsed, and he presented with abdominal pain. Ifosfamide, dexamethasone, etoposide, and cytarabine therapy was administered, and the second CR was observed in the patient. Subsequently, the patient was administered high-dose chemotherapy (MCEC) with autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation (auto-PBSCT). The treatment was well tolerated. Engraftment was performed on day9, and he was discharged on day17 after auto-PBSCT. However, at 6 months after auto-PBSCT, the second relapse of the disease was observed in the patient. He received salvage therapy; however, the patient died because of disease progression. Because of the dismal prognosis of EATL treated with conventional chemotherapy, the feasibility and efficacy of auto-PBSCT have been investigated. To the best of our knowledge, there is no report on an elderly patient (age70 years) with EATL who underwent auto-PBSCT. Thus, more data should be collected and analyzed to confirm that this therapy could be a promising treatment option for elderly patients with EATL.

Swertia japonica is an important Japanese folk medicine used as a remedy for stomach disease, and secoiridoids are the main active constituents. Towards producing secoiridoids using large-scale tissue culture, we investigated the effects of phytohormone conditions on callus induction and redifferentiation of adventitious roots from calli of S. japonica and the associated production of secoiridoids. Here, we report efficient conditions for induction of callus and adventitious roots and confirmed that adventitious roots produced the secoiridoids, swertiamarin, and gentiopicroside. Moreover, redifferentiation of adventitious roots was enhanced when cultured with a low concentration of auxin, while secoiridoid biosynthesis was elevated with a high concentration of cytokinin. In a time course of secoiridoid changes in adventitious roots, maximum secoiridoid production occurred 15 d after redifferentiation of adventitious roots of a 10-d-old culture, suggesting that relatively mature root development may be necessary for the in vitro production of secoiridoids in S. japonica.

The stress-induced α-ketol derivative of linolenic acid, identified in Lemna paucicostata as 9-hydroxy-10-oxo-12(Z),15(Z)-octadecadienoic acid (KODA), is involved in the enhancement of flower formation and the breaking of dormancy. Swertia japonica is an important bitter stomachic, and its adventitious roots contain xanthones, which are antioxidant compounds. Here, we demonstrate that KODA enhanced redifferentiation of adventitious roots from calli of S. japonica. Moreover, the effect of KODA was confirmed in liquid culture and the redifferentiation of adventitious roots was increased more than in solid culture. Conversely, KODA suppressed the biosynthesis of xanthone diglycoside, which suggests that KODA maintained the roots in an immature state under our culture conditions.

A 69-year-old man presented with back pain over the prior few months and was hospitalized because of bilateral adrenal masses and fracture of the left sixth rib. The mass on the right measured 6.5×3.6×7.0 cm, that on the left 8.1×4.8×6.9 cm, on CT. The final diagnosis was CD5- and CD10-positive primary adrenal diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (PA-DLBCL) with rib involvement. After EPOCH therapy accompanied with rituximab and intrathecal treatment, the tumors decreased dramatically. However, he died due to disease progression 8 months after the diagnosis. The prognosis of CD5- and CD10-positive PA-DLBCL may be very poor even with rituximab-containing chemotherapy.

Levels of trace element pollution in surface soil can be estimated using soil analyses and leaching tests. These methods may reveal different results due to the effect of soil properties, such as grain size and mineral composition, on elemental availability. Therefore, this study advocates an alternative method for monitoring and assessment of trace element pollution in surface soil using terricolous fruticose lichens. Lichens growing at abandoned mine sites and unpolluted areas in southwest Japan and their substrata were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to clarify the relationships between Cu, Zn, As, and Pb concentrations in lichens and soils, including their absorption properties. Concentrations of these elements in the lichens were positively correlated with those in the soils regardless of lichen species, location, habitat, or conditions of soils. The analyzed lichens had neither competitive nor antagonistic properties in their elemental absorption, which made them good biomonitors of trace element pollution in surface soil. The distribution maps of average Cu, Zn, As, and Pb concentrations at each sampling region detected almost all of the Cu, Zn, and As pollution of the soils. Therefore, lichens could be used in practical applications to monitor Cu, Zn, and As pollution in surface soils.

Soil pollution has been estimated using soil analysis and leaching test. These methods could show different data from reality due to effects by soil properties such as grain size and mineral composition. Therefore, this study advocates a new assessment and monitoring method of heavy metal polluted soil using fruticose lichens. Lichens growing at abandoned mine sites and unpolluted areas in southwest Japan and their substrata were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to clarify the relationships between the heavy metal concentrations in lichens and soils, and their heavy metal absorption properties. Concentrations of Cu, Zn, As, and Pb in the lichens were positively correlated with those in the soil. Variability of the relationships did not depend on the lichen species, location, habitat, or the conditions of soils. The analyzed lichens had neither competitive nor antagonistic properties in their heavy metal absorption, which make them good biomarkers of heavy metal pollution of soil. The distribution maps of average heavy metal concentrations at each sampling region detected almost all of the Cu, Zn, and As pollution of soil. Therefore, lichens could be used in practical applications to assess Cu, Zn, and As pollution of soils.

Barbatic acid, a lichen-derived depside, inhibited oxygen evolution in spinach thylakoid membranes. It also affected parameters of Chl fluorescence, (Fm′-F)/F and Fv/Fm. Using specific donors and acceptors of electrons, we found two sites of inhibition in the PS II complex. The primary site, which is responsible for the inhibition of oxygen evolution, is at the reducing side of QA, possibly at QB. The other site is at the oxidizing side of P680 but not in the oxygen evolving complex, suggesting Yz as the target. At both sites, irreversible binding of the depside to the targets seems to be responsible for the inhibitions. Among the 8 lichen acids compared, barbatic acid was the most potent inhibitor for both the reducing site and oxidizing site.

The objective of this study was to discriminate between original Japanese and Australian Wagyu beef, which is sold in the Singapore markets, using six previously developed DNA markers. To effectively evaluate the six markers for breed identification, the probability of identification as Australian Wagyu beef was calculated based on the estimated allele frequencies using 130 Australian Wagyu individuals. The combined use of six markers would allow the discrimination of Australian Wagyu beef with an estimated probability of 0.776. The probability to discriminate Australian Wagyu from Japanese Wagyu beef was sufficiently high. In addition, Australian Wagyu has maternal mitochondrial DNA of Bos indicus cattle with moderate high frequency of 0.377. The DNA marker system could also be used as a deterrent force against false sales, and contribute to the reduction and prevention of incorrect or falsified labeling of beef.

Delimiting species boundaries among closely related lineages often requires a range of independent data sets and analytical approaches. Similar to other organismal groups, robust species circumscriptions in fungi are increasingly investigated within an empirical framework. Here we attempt to delimit species boundaries in a closely related clade of lichen-forming fungi endemic to Asia, the Hypogymnia hypotrypa group (Parmeliaceae). In the current classification, the Hypogymnia hypotrypa group includes two species: H. hypotrypa and H. flavida, which are separated based on distinctive reproductive modes, the former producing soredia but absent in the latter. We reexamined the relationship between these two species using phenotypic characters and molecular sequence data (ITS, GPD, and MCM7 sequences) to address species boundaries in this group. In addition to morphological investigations, we used Bayesian clustering to identify potential genetic groups in the H. hypotrypa/H. flavida clade. We also used a variety of empirical, sequence-based species delimitation approaches, including: the "Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery" (ABGD), the Poisson tree process model (PTP), the General Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC), and the multispecies coalescent approach BPP. Different species delimitation scenarios were compared using Bayes factors delimitation analysis, in addition to comparisons of pairwise genetic distances, pairwise fixation indices (FST). The majority of the species delimitation analyses implemented in this study failed to support H. hypotrypa and H. flavida as distinct lineages, as did the Bayesian clustering analysis. However, strong support for the evolutionary independence of H. hypotrypa and H. flavida was inferred using BPP and further supported by Bayes factor delimitation. In spite of rigorous morphological comparisons and a wide range of sequence-based approaches to delimit species, species boundaries in the H. hypotrypa group remain uncertain. This study reveals the potential limitations of relying on distinct reproductive strategies as diagnostic taxonomic characters for Hypogymnia and also the challenges of using popular sequence-based species delimitation methods in groups with recent diversification histories.

A 66-year-old man was admitted for oral hemorrhage, purpura, and APTT prolongation. Factor VIII (FVIII) activity was decreased, due to the presence of FVIII inhibitor. He was diagnosed with acquired hemophilia A (AHA) and treated with prednisolone. Eight months later, the FVIII inhibitor titer again increased. Upon readmission, thrombocytopenia and autoimmune hemolytic anemia were found. We suspected Evans syndrome accompanied by AHA, and we treated the patient with IVIG. However, his platelet count did not increase. Speech disturbance and delirium were observed from the 12th day of hospitalization. He was subsequently diagnosed with thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) because ADAMTS13 inhibitor was detected, causing a decrease in ADAMTS13 activity. We initiated plasma exchange (PE) and steroid-pulse therapy. After PE for 3 days, laboratory test results and psychiatric symptoms showed dramatic improvement. However, after a 2-day period without PE, the patient's platelet count decreased markedly. Therefore, we administered rituximab to eliminate these inhibitors. His platelet count recovered rapidly, and we were able to gradually wean the patient from PE. After two additional administrations of rituximab, neither inhibitor was detected. To date, the patient has remained in complete remission for approximately 3 years.

BACKGROUNDThe Japanese Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (JCCLS) has developed a multianalyte conventional reference material (MacRM) for nationwide standardization of laboratory measurements.METHODSTo prepare the MacRM, pooled sera were obtained from healthy Japanese individuals. Target values of the pooled sera for 30 analytes were assigned on the basis of the measurement results of 45 certified clinical laboratories whose calibration was verified by measuring certified reference materials (CRMs) provided by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, and JCCLS. Commutability of MacRM was assessed by comparison with results for 150 individual inpatients at Fukuoka University Chikushi Hospital. Survey samples were prepared by essentially the same method for MacRM but without target values. The survey samples were used to assess agreement among 165 laboratories that used various assay kits and platforms calibrated with the MacRM.RESULTSThe commutability of MacRM was confirmed for 30 analytes with sera from 150 individual patients. The imprecision (CV) of measurements of survey samples (high and low concentrations) among the 165 laboratories was 0.4%–10.0%. Twenty-six of 30 analytes were within the goals for interinstitutional allowable bias. An aliquot of MacRM stored frozen at −80 °C remained stable for ≥4 years.CONCLUSIONSThe MacRM was successfully applied as a calibrator to achieve nationwide standardization for 30 analytes measured by 165 laboratories that used various methods from different manufacturers.

Panaefluoroline B (2) is a fluorescent yellowish-green pigment produced by the cultured mycobiont of a lichen, Amygdalaria panaeola. Panaefluoroline B (2) has an isoquinoline skeleton, a C5 unit, and an amino acid, glycine, in its structure. The biosynthetic pathway of 2 was revealed by feeding experiments using [1-(13)C]-sodium acetate and [1,2-(13)C2][(15)N]-glycine. The analysis of labeling patterns of 2 and its mass spectrum suggested the isoquinoline part is biosynthesized via the acetate-malonate pathway with glycine as the nitrogen source and that the C5 unit originates from the mevalonate pathway.

Paraneoplastic inflammation of the large vessels is a rare complication of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), and patients with MDS and systemic vasculitis have a poor prognosis. We present a 66-year-old male with MDS and large vessel vasculitis treated with azacitidine. Azacitidine administration improved his clinical symptoms, high fever and thickening of the arterial wall, and he achieved a complete bone marrow remission. However, 1 year later he showed progression of MDS. For MDS with vasculitis, intensive therapy, the same as that given to the high-risk group, should be considered and azacitidine administration may represent an efficacious treatment.

Lichens are known to synthesize variety of secondary metabolites which show wide range of biological activities. Many substances have been successfully isolated and identified from natural thalli and mycobiont cultures. Various biological activities have been screened for chemicals produced by mycobionts in culture medium and natural thalli of lichens. In a study conducted two decades back, lichen substances and their biological activities were reviewed, in which were thirty-nine lichen products, mainly novel phenolic compounds, synthesized by mycobiont cultures. Here, we review studies regarding synthesis of lichen substances by liquid cultures of lichen mycobionts, new sophisticated analytical methods for isolation and characterization of lichen substances, and various sensitive bioassays to assess the bioactivity of the isolated compounds. Biological properties of mycobiont cultures and natural thalli of lichens for range of potential bioactivity as anti-oxidation, inhibitions of monoamine oxidase, acetylcholinesterase, and photosynthesis, and growth inhibitions of animal-diseased bacteria, wood-decaying fungi and tumor cells have been discussed in detail.

Levels of trace element pollution in surface soil can be estimated using soil analyses and leaching tests. These methods may reveal different results due to the effect of soil properties, such as grain size and mineral composition, on elemental availability. Therefore, this study advocates an alternative method for monitoring and assessment of trace element pollution in surface soil using terricolous fruticose lichens. Lichens growing at abandoned mine sites and unpolluted areas in southwest Japan and their substrata were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to clarify the relationships between Cu, Zn, As, and Pb concentrations in lichens and soils, including their absorption properties. Concentrations of these elements in the lichens were positively correlated with those in the soils regardless of lichen species, location, habitat, or conditions of soils. The analyzed lichens had neither competitive nor antagonistic properties in their elemental absorption, which made them good biomonitors of trace element pollution in surface soil. The distribution maps of average Cu, Zn, As, and Pb concentrations at each sampling region detected almost all of the Cu, Zn, and As pollution of the soils. Therefore, lichens could be used in practical applications to monitor Cu, Zn, and As pollution in surface soils.