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This paper explores the relationship between normalized vegetation index (NDVI) response to precipitation and temperature conditions by analyzing the spatial and temporal variation of vegetation cover (NDVI) in Mu Us Desert during 2000-2019. MODIS vegetation indices are designed to provide consistent spatial and temporal comparisons of vegetation conditions. Maximum Value Composites (MVC) is an internationally used statistical method for NDVI data. Based on MODIS remote sensing data, the NDVI of Mu Us Desert sandy land from 2000 to 2019 was analyzed by using the linear regression slope method. In 2000-2010 and 2010-2019, there was a difference in the change rate of vegetation index in Mu Us Desert, with the average slope of 0.0650/10a for the former and 0.0782/10a for the latter. The trends of NDVI values in the study area during 2000-2019 were roughly the same as those of precipitation, and slightly different from those of temperature, but the overall correlation between NDVI values and both was good. There is a significant positive correlation between NDVI and annual precipitation (0.687), and a weak correlation with temperature (0.264). The vegetation growth in Mu Us Desert is affected by both precipitation and temperature.

Climate change poses significant challenges to water resources and streamflow in Ethiopia, a country highly dependent on agriculture and vulnerable to environmental shifts. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge on climate change impacts on streamflow in Ethiopia, emphasizing factors driving these changes and drawing insights from relevant studies. The analysis encompasses hydrological responses to climate change, including alterations in precipitation patterns, temperature fluctuations, and changes in water availability. Additionally, the study examines the impact of land use changes on streamflow dynamics. Comparative insights from neighboring countries and river basins further illuminate the broader regional implications of climate change on water resources. According to the previous research reviewed in this paper, climate change, land use change, and increment in extreme events (drought) have affected the stream flow over the last decades. The findings underscore the urgent need for adaptive strategies and sustainable water management practices to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on streamflow and ensure water security in Ethiopia and beyond. HIGHLIGHTS The review paper provides localized insights into climate change impacts.; It contributes valuable information for water resource managers and policymakers.; It assesses the risks posed by climate change to Ethiopia's hydro-meteorological conditions.; It explores the socioeconomic consequences of hydro-meteorological changes induced by climate change.; The review contributes to the scientific knowledge base.;

Climate change refers to long-term alterations in climate patterns across various regions of the world. As per the data availability and explanations given by different researchers, human exercises, particularly the burning of coal, deforestation, and the use of oil, have increased the temperature of the Earth by significantly improving the engagement of heat-absorbing gases in the environment. The above-stated ratio will increase proportionally in the future. Therefore, climate change is one of our biggest global challenges, and urgent action must be taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and adapt to its effects, and ensure a long and healthy life for all. This paper examines the different aspects of the effects of climate change on different ecosystem elements, such as air, water, plants, animals, and human beings, with a notable focus on economic aspects. Finally, to better understand the situation, data in this report were collected from different media platforms, research mechanisms, guideline papers, newspapers, and other references. This review paper considers climate change mitigation and transformation worldwide in different sectors like human health, crop productivity, and the related economic impact. The conclusions emphasize that government monitoring is essential for countries' long-term growth through responsible resource management. HIGHLIGHTS This paper examines the different aspects of the effects of climate change on different ecosystem elements, such as air, water, plants, animals, and human beings, with a notable focus on economic aspects.; This paper also examines relief efforts, focusing on human health, biodiversity water resources and tourism.; This study also focuses on adaptation and mitigation strategies of climate change on different sectors.;

Non-stationary methods of flood frequency analysis are widespread in research but rarely implemented by practitioners. One reason may be that research papers on non-stationary statistical models tend to focus on model fitting rather than extracting the sort of results needed by designers and decision makers. It can be difficult to extract useful results from non-stationary models that include stochastic covariates for which the value in any future year is unknown. We explore the motivation for including such covariates, whether on their own or in addition to a covariate based on time. We set out a method for expressing the results of non-stationary models as an integrated flow estimate, which removes the dependence on the covariates. This can be defined either for a particular year or over a longer period of time. The methods are illustrated by application to a set of 375 river gauges across England and Wales. We find annual rainfall to be a useful covariate at many gauges, sometimes in conjunction with a time-based covariate. For estimating flood frequency in future conditions, we advocate exploring hybrid approaches that combine the best attributes of non-stationary statistical models and simulation models that can represent changes in climate and river catchments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 21st century, climate change, which is predominantly caused by human activities, has emerged as a major global concern. This paper examines in depth the profound and multifarious effects of climate change on ecosystems and the ecosystem services they provide. It further investigates the complex connections between climate change and ecosystems, focusing on terrestrial, aquatic, and marine habitats. Notably, we emphasize the unique challenges confronting ecosystems in Southeast Asia, a region of ecological significance where the ocean economy is fundamental to human livelihoods. Climate change threatens ecosystem services in numerous ways, including the provision of food and water, climate regulation, nutrient cycling, and cultural importance. We emphasize the potential transformation of ecosystems from carbon sinks to carbon sources, which has implications for climate control. Moreover, changes in disease vectors and altered landscapes raise concerns for human health and cultural traditions. We emphasize the importance of international cooperation, as exemplified by the Paris Agreement, in mitigating climate change collectively. In addition, we advocate for the inclusion of indigenous communities and traditional ecological knowledge in conservation and restoration initiatives. This paper concludes by emphasizing the profound interdependence between ecosystems and human well-being and the urgency of taking action. HIGHLIGHTS Climate change impacts on aquatic ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems, ecosystem services.; Future management.;

The paper presents prominent Nordic contributions to stochastic methods in hydrology and water resources during the previous 50 years. The development in methods from analysis of stationary and independent hydrological events to include non-stationarity, risk analysis, big data, operational research and climate change impacts is hereby demonstrated. The paper is divided into four main sections covering flood frequency and drought analyses, assessment of rainfall extremes, stochastic approaches to water resources management and approaches to climate change and adaptation efforts. It is intended as a review paper referring to a rich selection of internationally published papers authored by Nordic hydrologists or hydrologists from abroad working in a Nordic country or in cooperation with Nordic hydrologists. Emerging trends in needs and methodologies are highlighted in the conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor water quality is a widespread issue in urban rivers and streams in London. Localised pollution can have impacts on local communities, from health issues to environmental degradation and restricted recreational use of water. The Salmons and Pymmes Brooks, located in the London Borough of Enfield, flow into the River Lee, and in this paper, the impacts of misconnected sewers, urban runoff and atmospheric pollution have been evaluated. The first step towards finding a sustainable and effective solution to these issues is to identify sources and paths of pollutants and to understand their cycle through catchments and rivers. The INCA water quality model has been applied to the Salmons and Pymmes urban catchments in north-east London, with the aim of providing local communities and community action groups such as Thames21 with a tool they can use to assess the water quality issue. INCA is a process-based, dynamic flow and quality model, and so it can account for daily changes in temperature, flow, water velocity and residence time that all affect reaction kinetics and hence chemical flux. As INCA is process-based, a set of mitigation strategies have been evaluated including constructed wetland across the catchment to assess pollution control. The constructed wetlands can make a significant difference reducing sediment transport and improving nutrient control for nitrogen and phosphorus. The results of this paper show that a substantial reduction in nitrate, ammonium and phosphorus concentrations can be achieved if a proper catchment-scale wetland implementation strategy is put in place. Furthermore, the paper shows how the nutrient reduction efficiency of the wetlands should not be affected by climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is widely acknowledged as a serious threat to global development, and Bangladesh is no exception; without a doubt, global warming has placed Bangladesh among the most vulnerable countries. The motivation behind this paper is to examine the effects of climate change by taking into account the changes in temperature and precipitation over time. This paper first evaluates the climate change impact on crop production by using a crop modeling framework and then constructs a dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. The result of this study finds that average gross domestic product (GDP) decreases by −6.17% and investment declines by −7.76% due to the climate change impact. The impacts of climate change on rice sectors were felt more intensely, increasing prices by 5.82 and 8.11%, reducing output by −3.08 and −3.7% collectively in 2030 and 2050. The agricultural sectors’ output declined more compared to the manufacturing, mining and gas, construction, service and transportation sectors, which indicates declines in agricultural labor and household income. In conclusion, the impact of climate change by analyzing the computable general equilibrium model in Bangladesh had been paid little attention in the past and this paper tried to fill the gaps and provide policy-makers with crucial information and guide government policies. HIGHLIGHTS Develops a dynamic computable general equilibrium (DCGE) model to evaluate how climate change may influence Bangladesh's economy by and large.; Significant decline observed in GDP, consumption, investment, savings, household income, export, and output.; Agricultural sectors shrank more compared to other sectors in the economy.;

One of the major crops produced in Saudi Arabia is the date palm tree, Phoenix dactylifera L., as it can tolerate the harsh desert climate. One of the largest palm production areas in Saudi Arabia is the Al-Hassa oases, it has approximately 3 million date palms. However, by the end of the 21st century (2071–2100), climate change impacts will create a strain on the date production industry in the Al-Hassa region. Therefore, current practices need to be altered and various strategies must be adopted as changing the industry or moving regions are not viable options. This paper examines the impact of possible global warming based on various general circulation models, regional climate models, and scenarios developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Emission Scenarios on the climate in Al-Hassa by mid and end of the century. This paper discusses how these effects may impact date production and its distribution in the study area based on the resources available and on an individual, community, regional, national, and global scale. Possible options for sustaining the industry and what barriers or limitations may be faced by the proposed adaptation measures are discussed in this paper. HIGHLIGHTS There are no current studies specific to climate change effects on date production in Al-Hassa.; The region presents a unique challenge as it has springs and aquifers.; Actions need to be made to conserve agricultural production as there are not many other local production.; Prospects for better water management and agricultural practices need to be addressed.; Dates are one of the most important socioeconomic crops in Saudi Arabia.;

This paper discusses the response of climate change impact on future streamflow availability in Upper Awash River basin, Ethiopia. The change of climate was built using the CORDEX, RCM daily precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature under RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. The climate model was examined in the historical period 1996–2015 for its ability to capture observed precipitation and temperature. Bias correction was performed on RCM temperature and precipitation to minimize the uncertainties that may occur from climate model projection. After the successful calibration and validation of the HBV hydrological model, streamflow was simulated for the periods of 2021–2040 and 2041–2060 and compared to streamflow of the baseline period 1996–2015 to investigate the changes. The results suggested that overall, following the precipitation increment, streamflow is expected to increase under both RCPs. The average monthly changes of streamflow are expected to increase by 40.1 and 29.4% under RCP4.5 and 16.9 and 18.5% under RCP8.5 scenarios for 2021–2040 and 2041–2060, respectively. Annual streamflow would increase by 28.5 and 23.95% under RCP4.5 and 8.5, respectively. The results of this work can help and inform the water resources planner and designer to frame an appropriate plan and management for the effective use of water in the future. HIGHLIGHTS This study focus on stream-flow response to projected climate change in the Upper Awash sub-basin, Ethiopia.; This paper coupled RCM with RCPs and HBV hydrological model.; Bias correction was performed on RCM temperature and precipitation.; Comparative analysis of the differences between projected and baseline stream-flow were discussed.; Overall projected stream-flow would increase under both RCP scenarios.;

In high altitude, scarcely gauged basins, climate change impact assessment on river discharge is important for sustainable management of water resources. These basins are sources for irrigation and hydropower generation in the region. Expected changes in precipitation and temperature can affect the basin's hydrological regime which will have consequential impacts on the dependent sectors. For quantifying the impacts of major climatic variables on hydrological processes, this paper examined bias-corrected GCM outputs coupled with a hydrological model – HBV for Chenab basin. Trend analysis shows that precipitation would decrease after the short-term period and temperature is expected to increase throughout the century. Simulated river discharge is expected to increase throughout the 21st century under both RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios. It is also observed that there would be a shift in seasonal discharge patterns with increased pre- and post-monsoon contributions. Increase in snow and ice melt contribution to the overall discharge is also expected and would range between 50 and 59% until 2100. This study concluded that expected increase in discharge volume coupled with shift in seasonal discharge pattern would impact the basin water management and thus it is important to consider the impact of climate change on the hydrological regimes of basins. HIGHLIGHTS Paper deals with the ungauged basin originating from the Himalayas and assesses shifts in seasonal discharge patterns which highlights increased pre- and post- monsoon contributions in annual discharge.; Output from the study is important for the data scarce Himalayan region and for better planning and management of water resources.;

The recession of water levels of natural lakes and their associated impacts on wetland ecosystems is a serious issue worldwide. Poyang Lake (the largest freshwater lake in China) has experienced a heightened and prolonged water decline since the year 2000, which causes concern for associated ecological impacts. In particular, climate change, operation of the Three Gorges Dam (TGD), and high magnitude sand mining appear to be well-correlated with the occurrence of water decline in Poyang Lake. Though the above factors have been analyzed in previous studies, a comprehensive summary has never been compiled. This paper provides a detailed literary review highlighting the driving forces and possible impacts of the consistent water decline in Poyang Lake. We conclude here that the operation of TGD is a fundamental cause for the lake water decline, aggravated by climate change and sand mining. The water decline has caused a deterioration of water quality, as well as having given rise to a potential threat to the habitat of migratory birds and Yangtze finless porpoises. The paper intends to offer constructive references that can be used in decision-making for effective protection of water resources and lake ecosystems. HIGHLIGHTS This study provides the first review of driving forces of the water decline in Poyang Lake and its impacts.; We have chosen climate change, operation of Three Gorges Dam and sand mining to discuss the driving forces of water decline.; We have chosen four elements (water quality, landscape, migratory birds, and Yangtze finless porpoises) as representative examples to reveal severe influences on the water decline.;

This paper interrogates indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) based climate governance in water and land resource management in under-resourced areas of Zimbabwe. Water and land resources are fundamental for smallholder farmers and their productivity. The concept of IKS plays a significant role in climate change adaptation in Zimbabwe's rural communities. Climate change has a considerable influence on the success of agricultural production in the rural communities of Zimbabwe. Hence, it becomes fundamental to assess the community-based methods of climate governance. Qualitative multiple case study exploratory designs were employed with data collected through individual interviews with smallholder farmers, and thematic content analysis was used to analyse data. This study found that enhancing and embracing IKS is of paramount importance for inclusion in local-level strategies in the development process with special reference to climate governance in water and land resource management, particularly in under-resourced communities. It also established that the use of IKS enhances communities' adaptive capacity and it should not be conducted at the expense of scientific methods but rather should be employed in order to complement the existing scientific global knowledge systems. HIGHLIGHTS This paper interrogates the role of IKS in land and water resources sectors.; This study makes a striking contribution by revealing the strengths and weaknesses of IKS in climate change adaptation.; This paper recommends the incorporation of IKS into national climate change policy.;

Climate change and human interventions over the past few decades have significantly affected the groundwater resources in Ladakh Himalaya. Sparse or lack of suitable data and knowledge gaps are a major challenge in evaluating these impacts. Here, we synthesize the available data to assess the status of groundwater quantity, quality, withdrawal, and contamination in the Leh district of India. The study shows that glacier area has decreased by 40% whereas its volume has reduced by 25% since the Little Ice Age (∼1650 AD). The glacier melt, which influences the recharge, has reduced significantly. The growth of population by 15% per year, expansion of built-up area by 50%, and changes in the socio-ecology have further stressed the groundwater. The bore wells and groundwater draft have increased at ∼115 wells/year and ∼7 MCM/year, respectively. The increase of groundwater development by ∼26 times has reduced the reserves. Hence, for the sustainability of the resource, modeling and managing the impacts is urgently required. In this direction, this paper provides guidelines for researchers, policymakers, and water users to develop an integrative consortium management strategy for the sustainable utilization of the groundwater. HIGHLIGHTS Rise of temperature, high variability of precipitation, and change in its pattern have reduced the groundwater reserves of Ladakh Himalaya.; Population expansion, the tourism industry, urbanization, changes in land use, and water demands have also affected the groundwater and quality.; The need arises to model and manage the resources keeping the current and future scenario of the affecting factors in view.;

A traditional hydrologic water infrastructure design assumes that the climate is stationary, and that historic data reflect future conditions. The traditional approach may no longer be applicable since the earth's climate is not stationary. Thus, there is a need for a new way of designing water infrastructure that accounts for the effects of climate change by shifting the current static design paradigm to a more dynamic paradigm. Researchers have proposed several approaches accounting for climate change. In this paper, we group the approaches into five groups (adaptive management, inverse climate change impact, machine learning, flood frequency analysis, and soft computing approaches), outline each approach's strengths and weaknesses, and assess their applicability to the water infrastructure design. We find that the flood frequency analysis approach is most applicable to the water infrastructure design as it is the least disruptive in terms of standard hydrological analysis methods, is cost-effective, and adaptable to most basins. However, adaptive management approaches are best suited for uncertainty reductions since they provide opportunities to constantly adjust decisions based on improved climate change data. Combining these two approaches could provide an optimal way of accounting for non-stationarity. HIGHLIGHTS This study offers a summary of approaches to designing more climate-resilient water infrastructure.; This study extends the literature and knowledge of applicable approaches, allowing water managers to consider a broader suite of management options with stakeholders.; To our knowledge, this is the first comparative review of uncertainty approaches for addressing non-stationarity in water infrastructure design.;

This paper focuses on exploring the potential of Climate resilient agriculture (CRA) for river basin-scale management. Our analysis is based on long-term historical and future climate and hydrological datasets within a GIS environment, focusing on the Ajoy River basin in West Bengal, Eastern India. The standardized anomaly index (SAI) and slope of the linear regression (SLR) methods were employed to analyse the spatial pattern of the climate variables (precipitation, Tmax and Tmin) and hydrological variables (actual evapotranspiration (AET), runoff (Q), vapor pressure deficit (VPD), potential evapotranspiration (PET), and climate water deficit (DEF)) using the TerraClimate dataset spanning from 1958 to 2020. Future climate trend analysis spanning 2021 to 2050 was conducted using the CMIP6 based GCMs (MIROC6 and EC-Earth3) dataset under shared socio-economic pathway (SSP2-4.5, SSP5-8.5 and historical). For spatiotemporal water storage analysis, we relied on Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) from the Center for Space Research (CSR) and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) data, covering the period from 2002 to 2021. Validation was performed using regional groundwater level data, employing various machine learning classification models. Our findings revealed a negative precipitation trend (approximately −0.04 mm/year) in the southern part, whereas the northern part exhibited a positive trend (approximately 0.10 mm/year). HIGHLIGHTS The slope of the linear regression method was employed for the spatial distribution of the climatic and hydrological conditions (1958–2020).; Future climate trend analysis (2021–2100) has been executed through the CMIP6 (MIROC6 and EC-Earth3) SSP245, SSP585 and historical dataset.; A novel ensemble boosting machine learning algorithm was used for the validation of groundwater level.;

Urbanization and climate change are two potent forces shaping the contemporary environment. Urban rivers, integral to city life, are profoundly affected by these dynamics. While restoration efforts have yielded promising results, a persistent challenge lies in the inadequate consideration of geomorphic processes and climate change impacts in restoration planning. This study addresses this critical gap by proposing a novel approach for designing stable urban river geometries in ungauged basins. Leveraging the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method in conjunction with General Circulation Model (GCM) data, our research focuses on determining design discharge and channel stability. Our principal finding, based on the incorporation of parameters related to precipitation, runoff, and effective discharge, indicates a projected 35% increase in the width of stable urban rivers in the future. These results underscore the urgency of integrating climate change considerations into urban river restoration initiatives. Neglecting this imperative aspect risks the failure of restoration projects, particularly in addressing geomorphic challenges intensified by climate change. This research offers a valuable framework for future restoration efforts, ultimately contributing to the resilience and sustainability of urban river ecosystems. HIGHLIGHTS The manuscript advocates for a resilience-centric approach to urban river management. It underscores the importance of recalibrating historical reference conditions to adapt to climate-induced alterations.; The findings have immediate and far-reaching implications for urban river restoration projects. By recognizing the profound imprint of climate change on river stability parameters, stakeholders can recalibrate their restoration strategies to align with evolving environmental conditions. This adaptability is pivotal for preserving and enhancing urban river ecosystems.; Determine the design discharge according to the effective and bankfull discharge in the future.; This paper proposed a method to use the initial abstraction ratio to determine the discharge with a return period in ungauged basins.;

The uncertainty in the climate projection arising from various climate models is very common, and averaging such results poses a risk of underestimation or sometimes overestimation of impact in magnitude and frequency. Further, the performance of various climate models in monsoon degrades drastically due to the skewed nature. Under these circumstances, the performance of the climate model in the monsoon and non-monsoon periods is critical for accurate assessment. A multimodal approach has been used in the present work to quantify the uncertainty involved in the climate model using reliability ensemble averaging (REA). Based on AR6 of IPCC, the ensemble of 26 global climate models (GCMs) was used to evaluate the model performance and possible change in seasonal precipitation in four cities with distinct climate conditions, namely, Coimbatore, Rajkot, Udaipur, and Siliguri. The results show that non-monsoon and monsoon rainfall are expected to increase in all the regions. Most of the models perform poorly in simulating monsoon climate, especially in the monsoon period and are highly inconsistent spatially. The study also finds that the model performance is largely linked to the ratio of natural variability and mean. HIGHLIGHTS The paper discusses multimodal performance in climate change assessment in a monsoon-fed climate where the precipitation pattern is skewed.; Model bias for each climate model was quantified on a seasonal scale using Reliability Ensemble Averaging.; The performance of the GCMs largely depends on the ratio of natural variability to mean at regional level.; A reliable estimate of the change in climate variables is made using REA in CMIP6 framework for four climate scenarios, namely, SSP126, SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585.;

The paper aimed to evaluate the impacts of water pricing and quota policies under changing climatic conditions on the major production factors using economic-biophysical modeling. The data were collected by 382 questionnaires focusing on wheat, barley, cotton, alfalfa, and sugar beet crops in the 2017–2018 cropping year in North Khorasan Province, Iran. Climate change scenarios were defined as wet, moderate, and dry scenarios resulting from precipitation changes. The results showed that climate change scenarios reduce the total irrigated area of crops and total water used. Due to the effect of precipitation on crop yield, dry and moderate climate changes reduce the total gross income, while wet climate changes increase it. The scenarios of quota and pricing policies were then applied under climate change scenarios. The amount of water conserved by applying the quota policy was equal to the quota rate, while the impact of the pricing policy varied depending on the type of climate change. The highest amount of water conserved belonged to the conditions of dry climate change in Atrak and Central Desert catchments, which was about 6.8–8.6 and 3.83–14.48%, respectively. As the climate moves toward drought conditions in this province, the implementation of such policies can partially protect water resources. HIGHLIGHTS The effects of climate change and water policies scenarios were evaluated by an economic-biophysical modeling for the major crops in the 2017–2018 cropping year in North Khorasan province.; The climate change will reduce the irrigated area and the total gross income of farmers.; By the quota and pricing policies of water under climate change conditions, the available water for optimal consumption can be managed.;

This paper aims to evaluate two machine learning (ML) algorithms, namely, convolutional neural network (CNN) and long short-term memories (LSTM) deep learning algorithms, to predict the hydrological regime of the 3S River Basin under various climate change scenarios. Climate models CMCC-CMS, HadGEM-AO2, and MIROC5 were used to predict future climate and streamflow for three future periods: near-future (2020–2050), mid-future (2050–2080), and far-future (2080–2100) under two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5. The future projection shows an increase in mean annual temperature from 0.08 to 4.3 °C by CMCC-CMS, from 0.13 to 4.4 °C by HadGEM-AO2, and −0.07 to 4.2 °C MIROC5 models. Similarly, the annual precipitation is projected to fluctuate from 13.3 to 62.5% by CMCC-CMS, from −12.4 to 26.1% by HadGEM-AO2, and from 6.9 to 49% by the MIROC5 model. The 3S River Basin expects an increasing trend in streamflow in the Srepok and Sesan Rivers, while the Sekong is projected to have reduced streamflow. ML models predicted the increasing flood risk in the Sekong and Sesan catchments with the increase of the Q5 index in the future but a decrease in the Srepok. HIGHLIGHTS Machine learning (ML) models were used to predict the hydrological changes in the 3S River Basin.; The 3S River Basin is expected to be warmer and have fluctuation in rainfall patterns in the future.; The Srepok and Sesan Rivers are expected to have an increasing trend of streamflow while the Sekong is projected to have reduced streamflow.; ML models predicted the increasing flood risk in the Sekong and Sesan catchments.;

Quantifying climate change impact on water resources systems at regional or catchment scales is important in water resources planning and management. General circulation models (GCMs) represent our main source of knowledge about future climate change. However, several key limitations restrict the direct use of GCM simulations for water resource assessments. In particular, the presence of systematic bias and the need for its correction is an essential pre-processing step that improves the quality of GCM simulations, making climate change impact assessments more robust and believable. What exactly is systematic bias? Can systematic bias be quantified if the model is asynchronous with observations or other model simulations? Should model bias be sub-categorized to focus on individual attributes of interest or aggregated to focus on lower moments alone? How would one address bias in multiple attributes without making the correction model complex? How could one be confident that corrected simulations for the yet-to-be-seen future bear a closer resemblance to the truth? How can one meaningfully extrapolate correction to multiple dimensions, without being impacted by the ‘Curse of Dimensionality’? These are some of the questions we attempt to address in the paper. HIGHLIGHTS Importance of procedures for correcting systematic biases is discussed.; Extensive literature is presented on bias correction and its use.; The importance of correcting specific attributes for water resources applications is illustrated.; Challenges in formulating a bias correction alternative are highlighted.; Added information on how correcting these biases is critical before any dynamical or statistical downscaling application.;

The south-western coastal zone of Bangladesh is suffering from an acute crisis of freshwater due to salinity intrusion. First, the extent of the problem and its causes in detail were investigated. Climate change along with a few other anthropogenic impacts are the main causes. Exploring technologies for adaptation to climate change is emphasized today to overcome the problem of climate change impact. The coastal community was found to be already adopting technological measures as an adaptation means. This study developed a detailed inventory of all the available indigenous water supply technology options along the region and categorized them. An analysis of the suitability of the technologies was done, focusing on factors like the state of the technology, convenience in operation, quantity and quality of the supplied water, as well as financial viability or management practice. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches to the study were adopted to collect and analyze the data through extensive field visits, laboratory testing, and secondary data analysis. It is found that in most cases, solutions are on an ad hoc basis, having a lifetime of less than 5 years. In some places, people are gradually moving towards community-based and long-term hi-tech solutions. HIGHLIGHTS In Bangladesh, such an assessment of adaptation technologies is probably the first of its kind.; UNFCCC is emphasizing the issue of technological development and nurturing indigenous technologies for adaptation.; UNFCCC negotiation platform SBSTA and the requirement of Technology Need Assessment (TNA) by member countries are mentioned here.; In line with the above context, the paper can contribute significantly.;

Sustainable water supply is one of the key issues for water resources management. The future demand for clean water is putting pressure on the Malaysian government to find alternative supplies and best management practices in managing water resources, such as the use of reclaimed water. This paper evaluates the perceptions and acceptance of the use of treated water for non-drinking purposes in Malaysia from the responses of 1,004 participants. The results show that age and level of education play an important role in the level of community acceptance. Females tend to be more selective than males in their acceptance to use reclaimed water. To guarantee that the public receives accurate information about reclaimed water, social media can be used for disseminating information, especially to younger generations. HIGHLIGHTS Reclaimed water is one of the options to reduce the impact of climate change.; High levels of daily water consumption give impact dependence on clean water in the future.; The level of education is able to influence the community's acceptance of using reclaimed water.; Water supply disruptions cause consumers to seek alternative ways, such as the use of reclaimed water.; Social media help in imparting information.;

Urbanization and climate change increase the frequency of urban floods worldwide which in turn poses a great challenge in the management of the urban stormwater drain system. This study investigated the impact of climate change and surface imperviousness in the urban stormwater runoff and the impact of washed off pollutants load in the conduit efficiency for two census wards Triplicane (ward 116) and Valasaravakkam (ward 152) in Chennai City. The climate change data for the study area wards were taken from the regional climate model (RCM) of Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5. Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) with quality and quantity scenarios were developed and the results of the present year scenario were validated using a questionnaire survey. Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) curves were generated to forecast the observed rainfall and climate model data for various return periods, i.e., 2, 5, 10, 50, and 100 years for future climatic scenarios (2030s and 2050s). The model results show that infiltration is only 3–7% of the total rainfall in the study areas and the maximum blockage and reduction in conduit capacity were estimated to be 65 and 40%, respectively. This paper presents the observations and suggestions for improving the conduit efficiency from an Integrated Water Management Approach (IWMA). HIGHLIGHTS Imperviousness of the study area was calculated based on LULC classification using Google Earth.; Bias correction was carried out for the climate data using observed rain gauge data.; Evaluation of the impact of pollutants load in the conduit carrying capacity using the SWMM.; Questionnaire survey outcomes were used to understand the past extreme events and also used in conjunction with the model outputs to derive suggestions.;

Modelling the river flow process during uncertain climatic conditions is a challenging task. This paper attempts to apply the hydrological model based on the least action principle (HyMoLAP) at Chitral and Gilgit stations with few modifications. The topographic wetness index, the concept of degree-day factor and snowmelt (SM) using the snow cover area (SCA) have been incorporated into the improved HyMoLAP-SM structure. It is found that the HyMoLAP-SM model significantly enhanced the accuracy of the river flow estimation and forecast. Furthermore, the model seems highly sensitive to the choice of nonlinearity parameter and moderately sensitive to SM coefficients. Moreover, the response of river flow to climate change scenarios has been projected by utilizing modelled outcomes under temperature and precipitation variations. Overall, the results suggest that average river flow may get increased (reduced) by about 60% (40%) by the increase (decrease) in temperature. On the other hand, an increase (decrease) in precipitation at Chitral (Gilgit) may increase (decrease) the average flow by about 27% (200%) [19% (8%)] at the respective station. These results may be utilized for future flood/agricultural planning in Pakistan. Additionally, results obtained in this study may not be applicable to other geographical regions or interchangeable with other modelling purpose. HIGHLIGHTS The HyMoLAP-SM model is highly sensitive (moderately sensitive) to the choice of nonlinearity (snowmelt) parameters.; The response of river flow to the change in temperature values seems to be steady at both the stations.; The response of river flow to the increasing precipitation scenario is likely to be chaotic at the Gilgit station.; HyMoLAP-SM may capture the physical composition of the river flow adequately.;

This paper aims to analyze how user behavior and climate change influence the freshwater demand in metropolitan areas. In total, 406 observations were obtained from different respondents in Dhaka city via an online survey. Our research demonstrates that the data are reliable and acceptable for factor analysis. Structural equation modeling (SEM) is adopted to show the relationships between the parameters. The model fit parameters (CFI, NFI, TLI, RMSEA, and so on) are used to choose the best structural equation (SE) model. Additionally, responses are analyzed by the relative importance index (RII) method and compared with the SEM results. This study shows that personal water waste and natural crises substantially impact the freshwater crisis. Excessive use of water during showering, washing clothing and dishes, washing vegetables, and pool refilling are the most common ways to wastewater. Furthermore, the ground layer in Dhaka city is gradually reducing due to the natural crisis, but the WASA pump's capacity is insufficient to pump up this water. This research aids policymakers in identifying the key attributes that are contributing to the urban freshwater crisis. HIGHLIGHTS Evaluate water crisis scenario.; Identifies influencing causes that aggravated water crisis problems.; Inter-relationship among water misuse parameters.; The relative importance index (RII) method is used to determine the relative importance of parameters involved in creating a water crisis.; RII also used to compare the result with structural equation modeling.;

Land use and land cover changes, population growth, urban sprawl and climate change are expected to augment the pressure on natural environment and on existing infrastructure. As a result, update of intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves considering climate change is essential for adaptation of water-related structures to climate change. The present work reviews the main challenges regarding the update of IDF curves considering climate change. A wide literature search was conducted in scientific databases. More than 100 articles published between 2001 and 2021 have been reviewed and are summarized and discussed. The main aims of the present work were to: (i) identify the state-of-the-art scientific approaches regarding IDF curve update under climate change projections; (ii) assess whether or not these approaches incorporate uncertainty (i.e., uncertainty related to climate models, statistical downscaling techniques, temporal resolution of data, theoretical distribution selection etc.); and (iii) propose general guidelines for updating IDF curves based on climate projections. First, the motivation is presented that makes IDF curve renewal a global issue. Second, current practices are described and reviewed and the main impacts of climate change on short precipitation extremes around the world are briefly discussed. Finally, limitations and future research needs are discussed. HIGHLIGHTS Over 100 published papers are summarized.; Approaches for updating IDF curves considering climate change are reviewed.; Climate change impacts on future IDF curves are summarized.; Uncertainty quantification methods are discussed.; General guidelines for updating IDF curves are proposed.;

With the operation of six cascade reservoirs, the flow regime and sediment discharge of the Lancang River have changed greatly. The changes of runoff and suspended load have attracted extensive attention. The hydrological data of Gajiu and Yunjinghong stations in Lancang River from 1964 to 2019 were analyzed by using wavelet analysis, double mass curve and abrupt change analysis. The temporal trends in runoff and suspended load were evaluated. Results revealed that the reduction of suspended load was much more profound than the change of runoff. There was a slight downward trend in annual runoff due to climate change. After the completion of Xiaowan and Nuozhadu reservoirs, the proportion of runoff in flood season decreased by 22.64 and 30.75%, respectively. Wavelet analysis was used to reveal the characteristics of runoff evolution. With the operation of reservoirs, suspended load showed abrupt changes in 1993 and 2008. The amount of suspended load during 2009–2019 decreased by 95.47–98.78% compared with that before the reservoir construction. This paper presents the latest quantitative study on the temporal variation of runoff and suspended load since the completion of Xiaowan and Nuozhadu reservoirs, which is of great importance for guiding the operation of reservoirs and maximizing the value of the whole Lancang-Mekong River basin. HIGHLIGHTS Variations of runoff and suspended load during 1964–2019 in Lancang River were first quantified in detail after Xiaowan and Nuozhadu reservoirs were completed.; The total amount of runoff was dominated by climate change, while reservoir construction mainly influenced the annual process of runoff.; Suspended load exhibited abrupt changes in 1993 and 2008 and the reduction reached 95–99% after the reservoir construction.;

Studying extreme meteorology and its frequency under climate change is helpful to guide flood and drought control. The original achievements and objective of this study are to further contribute to the literature on how to analyze the impact of climate change on extreme rainfall and extreme temperature more reasonably and comprehensively for a karst basin. The Mann–Kendall method, Heuristic segmentation method, cross-wavelet analysis method, generalized extreme value (GEV) model, and generalized Pareto distribution (GPD) model were applied in this paper. The 55-year (1963–2017) extreme rainfall and temperature data recorded in the Chengbi River Basin were applied. The results show that extreme rainfall showed a downward trend (−0.169 and −8.735 mm/10a), while the trends of extreme temperatures were not obvious (Sen's slope estimate is 0). The mutation points range from 1981 to 2002 and the mutation point of extreme rainfall series is earlier than that of extreme temperatures. Compared with the GEV model, the parameters of the GPD model show a smaller variation before and after climate change, and the extreme meteorology values corresponding to the same recurrence period show a decreasing trend after climate change. The performance of GEV and GPD models after climate change is generally more fit than that before climate change. HIGHLIGHTS A framework was proposed for further study of the effect of climate change.; A trend study to show if climate change impacts the extreme rainfall and temperatures.; Figuring out the performance of different models before and after climate change.;

This paper assessed the current water resources system and two future scenarios in the Qena Governorate by developing a Water Balance Model (WB Model) and Water Security Quality-based Index (WSQI). The first scenario presented 25% reduction in Nile flow, while the second scenario suggested adaptation measures to comply with flow reduction. The measures included leveling 100,000 feddans, serving 70,000 feddans with sprinkler irrigation, and lining 2,977 km of canals. The WB Model estimated WB components. The WSQI was a new index suitable for Egypt's conditions considering water quality. The water supply from High Aswan Dam (HAD) was predicted by the BlueM model for hydrological simulations of Nasser Lake. The study found that the current water shortage was fulfilled by drainage reuse and shallow groundwater, and the WQSI indicated a low water insecurity. The flow reduction increased the water shortage and reuse quantity. As a result, the WSQI indicated high water insecurity. The suggested measures improved agricultural water use efficiency from 51% to 63%, reduced water shortage, and improved the water insecurity level from high to medium. This study concluded that adaptation measures can improve the future water system and water security in the Qena Governorate. The study recommended upscaling WSQI use for the entire country. HIGHLIGHTS It provided the first water security index considering the water quality aspect.; No previous publications have provided clear assessment values as this research did.; First water security index suitable for Egyptian conditions.; Impacts of adaptation measures to Nile flow reduction have been quantified.;

Selecting a suitable bias correction method is important to provide reliable inputs for evaluation of climate change impact. Their influence was studied by comparing three discharge outputs from the SWAT model. The result after calibration with original RCM indicates that the raw RCM are heavily biased, and lead to streamflow simulation with large biases (NSE = 0.1, R2 = 0.53, MAE = 5.91 mm/°C, and PBIAS = 0.51). Power transformation and linear scaling methods performed best in correcting the frequency-based indices, while the LS method performed best in terms of the time series-based indices (NSE = 0.87, R2 = 0.78, MAE = 3.14 mm/°C, PBIAS = 0.24) during calibration. Meanwhile, daily translation was underestimating simulated streamflow compared with observed and was considered as the least performing method. The precipitation correction method has higher visual influence than temperature, and its performance in streamflow simulations was consistent and considerable. Power transformation and variance scaling showed highly qualified performance compared to others with indicated time series values (NSE = 0.92, R2 = 0.88, MAE = 1.58 mm/°C and PBIAS = 0.12) during calibration and validation of streamflow. Hence, PT and VARI were the dominant methods to remove bias from RCM models at Akaki River basin. HIGHLIGHTS This paper clearly identifies that bias correction methods' performances are watershed-dependent.; Bias correction methods should be separately applied to each watershed.; Also SWAT Model clearly identifies that bias correction methods have not been adjusted for all uncertainty related to the models.; Bias of RCM should be removed with caution.; Power Transformation and Variance scaling methods performed best.;

Pressure on water resources has reached unprecedented levels during the last decades because of climate change, industrialization, and population growth. As a result, vulnerability to inappropriate water availability and/or quality is increasing worldwide. In this paper, a Soil & Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model of the Carp River watershed located in the city of Ottawa, Ontario was calibrated and validated. The model was then used to evaluate the individual and coupled impacts of urbanization and climate change on water quantity (discharge) and quality (nitrogen and phosphorus loads). While most of the watershed is currently rural, the headwaters will undergo rapid urbanization in the future, and there are concerns about possible negative impacts on water quantity and quality. Seven scenarios were developed to represent various watershed configurations in terms of land use and climate regime. Future climate time series were obtained by statistically downscaling the outputs of nine regional climate models, run under representative concentration pathways (RCP)4.5 and RCP8.5. The impacts were evaluated at the main outlet and at the outlet of an upstream sub-watershed that would be most affected by urbanization. Results show that climate change and urbanization's impacts vary greatly depending on the spatial scale and geographic location. Globally, the annual average discharge will increase between 6.75 and 9.34% by 2050, while changes in annual average nitrogen and phosphorus loads will vary between −1.20 and 24.84%, and 19.15 and 23.81%, respectively. Local impacts in sub-watersheds undergoing rapid urbanization would be often much larger than watershed-scale impacts. HIGHLIGHTS A global-local approach was used to assess the impacts.; Local impacts can be an order of magnitude higher than watershed-scale impacts.; Impacts at the local and watershed scale might have opposite directions of change.; Climate change will likely drive the flow and nitrogen load in the Carp River watershed.; Urbanization will control the phosphorus load.;

In Bhima sub-basin, the water sector is at high demand and in critical stress due to rapid urbanization. The past few decades have witnessed extreme events and seasonal shifts due to anthropogenic activity triggered climate change. Thus, to evaluate the variability of extreme events, assessing the historical and future trends of precipitation in climate change scenarios is vital for developing comprehensive mitigation and adaptation strategies. This paper examines the drought-prone regions by studying spatio-temporal variation of drought scenarios using the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI). The change factor method is used to downscale precipitation data from general circulation model (GCM) outputs under four Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios to project future downscaled precipitation, to be input to examine the drought for 12 months. GCM and scenario uncertainty in climate change impact assessments are examined using box-whisker plots. Temporal variation for 12-month SPI shows significant changes over RCP scenarios. For the beginning of the period, 2021 precipitation is scanty for RCP 2.6 and 4.5 scenarios. Mild to moderate and severe drought events for the RCP 2.6 scenario are more predominant. Severe drought events under the RCP 6.0 scenario dominate over others. Lastly, the inconsistent pattern of drought events for RCP 8.5 is reported. HIGHLIGHTS Impacts of climate change on drought : regional scenario in Bhima sub-basin.; Trend analysis using Mann-Kendall test to examine the baseline climate.; Analysis of drought characteristics by Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI).; Occurrence of drought events under CMIP5 model/RCP scenarios in different grids of the study area.; Temporal variation and spatial pattern of the drought characteristics for 12-month SPI.;

At present, there is a global deficit in infrastructure and the World Bank Group (WBG) is one of the major sources of financing to reduce this gap worldwide. The WBG has policies and protocols for approving investments taking into consideration financial and economic indicators while ensuring social and environmental safeguards. In recent years, these safeguards have been updated to include the effects of climate change and robustness and resilience to support climate-informed project investment decision-making. A series of tools for screening projects for climate vulnerabilities and identification of risk management options have been developed to help project teams comply with these requirements. One of these tools is the hierarchical four-phased Decision Tree Framework (DTF) that, beyond screening, helps to analyze plans and project vulnerabilities, climate-related or otherwise, using a decision scaling approach, and explore risk management options, if necessary. The four phases of the DTF are (i) project screening, (ii) initial analysis, (iii) stress test, and (iv) climate risk management. This paper reviews applications of the DTF from the climate change screening phase to non-climate uncertainty screening and decision-making for project investments and prioritization. A peek into work in progress for incorporating resilience in the decision-making process, both for projects and through projects, is also provided, as well as next steps, looking forward. HIGHLIGHTS Since 2010, the World Bank Group has developed several tools that facilitate climate risk assessment and evaluation to inform decision-making.; The Decision Tree Framework (DTF) integrates them within a bottom-up approach which accounts for various uncertainties that challenge the water sector while narrowing the gap between science and its practical applications.; The DTF permits the consideration of resilience aspects beyond the physical dimensions of water infrastructure including the integration of human, economic, and institutional-governance systems.; The DTF pilot studies suggest its practicality, flexibility, and scientific coherence for its application in the wide diversity of water projects across various geographies.; Apart from its progress, the DTF still needs to adequately refine the incorporation of green infrastructure, water quality risks, energy efficiency and renewable, sea-level rise, and others.;

The Asia-Pacific region is extremely vulnerable to climate variability and change. This reflects high exposure to hydroclimatic hazards such as tropical cyclones, floods, droughts, and heatwaves. Rapidly growing cities and low-lying coastal zones/estuaries also face threats from sea level rise and storm surges. However, climate model projections remain very uncertain about most of these risks, so water infrastructure and operations need to consider a range of plausible futures. Against this background, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) has been developing frameworks, tools, and capacities in climate risk and adaptation assessment and management. Project teams are often operating in data-scarce situations and under significant time constraints, so the emphasis has been on creating pragmatic guidance and training resources. This paper charts the transition of climate risk management (CRM) within the ADB from a predominantly scenario-led to decision-led approach to adaptation. Examples are given of light-touch procedures for screening climate risks, strengthening the transparency and rigour of scenario analysis, raising awareness of a broad range of adaptation options, streamlining identification of CRM options, and embedding allowances for climate change in detailed engineering designs. Such practical innovations would benefit communities of practice beyond the Asia-Pacific region. HIGHLIGHTS Water infrastructure and operating rules must be adapted such that they continue to deliver intended benefits despite climate change.; The Asian Development Bank has been developing frameworks, tools, and capacity for climate risk assessment and adaptation investments.; Pragmatic procedures for screening climate risk are particularly helpful in information- and resource-constrained situations.;

In this paper, the responses of hydro-meteorological drought to changing climate in the Be River Basin located in Southern Vietnam are investigated. Climate change scenarios for the study area were statistically downscaled using the Long Ashton Research Station Weather Generator tool, which incorporates climate projections from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 (CMIP5) based on an ensemble of five general circulation models (Can-ESM2, CNRM-CM5, HadGEM2-AO, IPSL-CM5A-LR, and MPI-ESM-MR) under two Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5). The Soil and Water Assessment Tool model was employed to simulate streamflow for the baseline time period and three consecutive future 20-year periods of 2030s (2021–2040), 2050s (2041–2060), and 2070s (2061–2080). Based on the simulation results, the Standardized Precipitation Index and Standardized Discharge Index were estimated to evaluate the features of hydro-meteorological droughts. The hydrological drought has a 1-month lag time from the meteorological drought and the hydro-meteorological droughts have negative correlations with the El Niño Southern Oscillation and Pacific Decadal Oscillation. Under the climate change impacts, the trends of drought severity will decrease in the future; while the trends of drought frequency will increase in the near future period (2030s), but decrease in the following future periods (2050 and 2070s). The findings of this study can provide useful information for the policy- and decisionmakers for a better future planning and management of water resources in the study region. HIGHLIGHTS There is a lack of knowledge about how climate change will affect the hydro-meteorological drought in the tropical region.; The hydro-meteorological droughts have negative correlations with the global climate oscillation.; The drought frequency will have a rising trend in the near future period (2030s) and downward trends in the following future periods (2050 and 2070s).;

Several studies have documented the multifaceted impacts of climate change and variability on agricultural and environmental sustainability, and social and economic development. Climate change and variability contribute to increased warmer conditions, increased frequency of heavy rain that accounts for an increasing proportion of total rainfall, extreme weather characterized by spatially variable cycles of drought and wetness, increased frequency of tropical storms/hurricanes, increased frequency of storm surges, and accelerated rate of sea-level rise (SLR). As SLR continues, it is expected that salinity due to saltwater intrusion (SWI) will impact soil health and agricultural production. As such, the significant threats of salinity necessitate more work to be done to better understand its impact on soil health and associated functional ecosystem processes. This is of even greater importance in areas such as South Florida where the surface and groundwater resources are hydrologically connected due to the shallow and highly permeable limestone soils. A better understanding of the impacts of salinity due to SWI on soil health is critical to design effective mitigation strategies. Healthy soil has multifaceted benefits to enhance agricultural productivity, i.e. regulates the flow of water; serves as a source and sink of nutrients; minimizes greenhouse gas emissions and provides optimal biological and chemical conditions for the transformation of nutrients into plant-available forms. Improved understanding of the processes and impacts of SWI on soil health will assist in guiding management decisions and policies to mitigate the impacts of SWI and salinity on agricultural soils. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the impacts of SWI and soil salinity on agricultural soil health and water quality. HIGHLIGHTS Climate change poses a serious threat to agricultural land use and soil health.; Soil salinity affects soil–water–plant relationships.; Soil amendments (e.g., biochar, hydrogel, organic mulch, and gypsum) can be used to improve soil health.; Climate change impacts are multifaceted and integrated mitigation strategies should be adopted.; Salt water intrusion could result in increased nutrient solubility and transformation, which could lead to increased nutrient loading to freshwater resources.;

Extreme winter warming can affect many aspects of environmental and human related activities. It can be disastrous, especially in arid regions. However, no specific research has been carried out on detecting winter warming in Iran. To address this research gap, this study was performed to investigate winter warming in the arid and semi-arid areas located in northeastern Iran. For this purpose, anomalies of minimum and maximum daily temperature, average daily temperature, mean daily temperature range and mean daily precipitation were studied on monthly, seasonal, annual and decadal scales. Along with this, the trend in the data was analyzed using the Mann–Kendall (MK) test. The results showed that since the 1990s there has been a significant increase in temperature positive anomalies at most stations. In addition, the precipitation anomaly mutations occurred later than temperature. In most cases the increase in winter anomalies was higher than the average annual anomalies. As an example, the maximum winter temperature anomaly increased from 0.38 °C in the 1990s to 2.07 °C in the 2000s at Mashhad station. Due to the simultaneous increase in anomalies at most stations, the detected winter warming is more likely to be the result of global warming rather than local synoptic climate. HIGHLIGHTS This is the 1st study solely dedicated to assessing the winter warming phenomenon on a local scale in Iran.; The present study confirmed that winter warming has occurred since the 1990s.; The warming time in every decade occurred earlier than the previous decade.; The precipitation's anomaly mutation occurred later than the temperature's.; The quantification of winter warming in this paper can provide valuable information for water management in arid areas.;