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As new energy integration increases, power grid load curves become steeper. Large logistics parks, with their substantial cooling load, show great peak shaving potential. Leveraging this load while maintaining staff comfort, product quality, and operational costs is a major challenge. This paper proposes a two-stage robust optimization method for large logistics parks to participate in grid peak shaving. First, a Cooling Load's Economic Contribution (CLEC) index is introduced, integrating the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Sales Pressure Index (SPI). Then, an optimization model is established, accounting for renewable energy uncertainties and maximizing large logistics parks' participation in peak shaving. Results illustrate that the proposed method leads to a reduction in the peak shaving pressure on the distribution network. Specifically, under the scenario tolerating the maximum potential uncertainty in renewable energy output, the absolute peak-to-valley difference and fluctuation variance of the park's net load are decreased by 45.82% and 54.59%, respectively. Furthermore, the PMV and the SPI indexes are reduced by 39.12% and 26.36%, respectively. In comparison with the determined optimization method, despite a slight cost increase of 20.06%, the proposed method significantly reduces EDR load shedding by 98.1%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transformer efficiency is a key concern for both transformer operators and regulators, particularly with regards to new transformers. Cooling is a critical factor in preventing overheating and controlling the ageing of transformer insulation. This paper aims to analyse how different cooling setups can influence efficiency. Transformer losses depend on the winding temperature, which is affected by load, ambient temperature, and cooling power. In this study, we will take all of these factors into consideration to examine their impact on transformer losses. Using a 520 MVA transformer as an example, we will calculate the loss levels under different realistic ambient temperature and load profiles. We will also apply different cooling system settings to determine the optimization possibilities. Our calculations will consider different turn-on temperatures of the fans and cooling stages and will use steady state calculations over a period of 12 months. Additionally, a novel approach to control cooling by using the loading of the transformer is present, as are the possibilities of using variable speed fans. Finally, we will estimate the influence of cooling settings on transformer ageing by examining their impact on temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a heat recovery ground source heat pump (HR-GSHP) system, in which the primary pipes of the GSHP for air conditioning and the GSHP for hot water are connected to ground heat exchangers (GHEs) and each GSHP is operated simultaneously or within a short period of time, was installed in a dormitory building on a trial basis. Then, the optimal operation method to minimize the energy consumption of the system was investigated. The operating period of the GSHP for HW was changed and simulations were conducted to determine the operating period with the lowest energy consumption, which was 8 months from April to November. Furthermore, the HR-GSHP system was operated for 8 years from 2012 to 2019, and actual measurements were carried out to verify the system performance and the energy saving effect in optimal operation. In actual operation, it was confirmed that the minimum temperature was about 10 °C or higher even when the GSHP for HW was operated year-round. Therefore, the GSHP for HW was operated year-round after the third year of operation. It was confirmed that the operation of the GSHP for HW in summer, especially in August and September when the cooling load is large, can improve the system's efficiency by the effect of recovering cooling exhaust heat. In the eighth year of operation, when the GSHP for HW was operated most during the summer season, the system was able to reduce power consumption for air conditioning and hot water supply by approximately 17%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the energy, exergy, and economic analysis of a new cogeneration cycle for the simultaneous production of power and cooling operating with an ammonia–water mixture. The proposed system consists of an absorption cooling system integrating a reheater, a separation tank, a compressor, a turbine, and an expansion valve. In addition, internal rectification is applied, improving the system's performance. Mass, energy, and exergy balances were applied to each system's component to evaluate its performance. Additionally, the costs of each component were determined based on economic equations, which take into account mass, heat flows, and temperature differences. A parametric analysis found that the system reached an energy utilization factor of 0.58 and an exergy efficiency of 0.26 using internal rectification at TG = 120 °C, TA = 30 °C, and TE = 10 °C. The power produced by the turbine was 26.28 kW, and the cooling load was 366.8 kW. The output costs were estimated at 0.071 $/kW. The condenser was found to be the most expensive component of the system, contributing 28% of the total cost. On the other hand, it was observed that the generator was the component with the highest exergy destruction, with 38.16 kW. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the design and planning stage of a district energy system, the prediction of the cooling and heating loads is an important step. The accurate estimate of the load pattern can provide a basis for the configuration and optimization of the system. To meet the demand in practical application, this paper proposes a fast load prediction method for district energy systems based on a presimulated forward modelling database and KNN (K-nearest neighbor) algorithm and develops it into a practical tool. Owing to the absence of some design parameters at the planning stage, scenario analysis is also used to determine some input conditions for load prediction. In this paper, the scenarios cover three types of building: office, shopping mall and hotel. To test the performance of this new method, we randomly selected 15 virtual buildings (5 buildings for each type) with different design parameters and took their detailed BPS (building performance simulation) model as a benchmark to assess the prediction results of the new method. The index "ratio of the hours with effective prediction" is defined as the ratio of the hours whose relative error of hourly load prediction is less than 15% to the hours whose load is not 0 in the whole year, and the test result shows that this index is not less than 0.9 (90%) for the predicted cooling load of all 45 test cases and the predicted heating load of 25 of the 45 cases. As a research achievement with practical value, this paper accomplishes the programming work of the tool and makes it into a software. The application of this software in the actual project of district energy system is also presented. The performance of the new load prediction tool was compared with the traditional approach commonly used in engineering—the load estimation based on reference building models—and the result shows that the fast load estimate tool can provide the same level of prediction accuracy as traditional simulation methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Superconducting electric motors are required in order to deliver lower-carbon aviation. Critical to the success and viability of operating superconducting electric motors in aviation is keeping the superconducting coils at their operating temperature. This paper examines the challenges of keeping a superconducting motor cold if it were used on a single aisle passenger aircraft such as an Airbus A320. The cooling problem is defined and different cooling scenarios are investigated to determine viability. The investigation has shown that for a motor with a superconducting rotor only (copper stator), a Stirling-type cryocooler would be sufficient. However, if the motor is to be fully superconducting, then the cooling loads of the stator, which are much higher, make mechanical refrigeration impractical and the only option is to cool the motor with the heat sink of a liquid hydrogen fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commercial buildings in hot and humid tropical climates rely significantly on cooling systems to maintain optimal occupant comfort. A well-accurate day-ahead load profile prediction plays a pivotal role in planning the energy requirements of cooling systems. Despite the pressing need for effective day-ahead cooling load predictions, current methodologies have not fully harnessed the potential of advanced deep-learning techniques. This paper aims to address this gap by investigating the application of innovative deep-learning models in day-ahead hourly cooling load prediction for commercial buildings in tropical climates. A range of multi-output deep learning techniques, including Deep Neural Networks (DNNs), Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), and Long Short-Term Memory networks (LSTMs), are employed to enhance prediction accuracy. Furthermore, these individual deep learning techniques are synergistically integrated to create hybrid models, such as CNN-LSTM and Sequence-to-Sequence models. Experiments are conducted to choose the time horizons from the past that can serve as input to the models. In addition, the influence of various categories of input parameters on prediction performance has been assessed. Historical cooling load, calendar features, and outdoor weather parameters are found in decreasing order of influence on prediction accuracy. This research focuses on buildings located in Singapore and presents a comprehensive case study to validate the proposed models and methodologies. The sequence-to-sequence model provided better performance than all the other models. It offered a CV-RMSE of 7.4%, 10%, and 6% for SIT@Dover, SIT@NYP, and the simulated datasets, which were 2.3%, 3%, and 1% less, respectively, than the base Deep Neural Network model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many researchers are devoted to improving the prediction accuracy of daily load profiles, so as to optimize day-ahead operation strategies to achieve the most efficient operation of district heating and cooling (DHC) systems; however, studies on load prediction and operation strategy optimization are generally isolated, which leaves the following question: what day-head load prediction performance should be paid attention to in the operation optimization of DHC systems? In order to explain this issue, and taking an actual DHC system as a case study, this paper proposes an evaluation method for the prediction of daily cooling load profiles by considering the impact of inaccurate prediction on the operation of a DHC system. The evaluation results show the following: (1) When prediction models for daily load profiles are developed, the prediction accuracy of the daily mean load should be emphasized, and there is no need to painstakingly increase the accuracy of load profile shapes. (2) CV and RMSE are the most suitable deviation measures (compared to others, e.g., MAPE, MAE, etc.) for the evaluation of load prediction models. A prediction model with 27.8% deviation (CV) only causes a 3.74% deviation in operation costs; thus, the prediction performance is enough to meet the engineering requirements for the DHC system in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a detailed study of the energy savings that can be achieved through residential appliances by implementing conservation voltage reduction (CVR). The computed energy savings are derived from the ZIP coefficients of a load model (static) under varying voltage conditions that represent the power consumed by each appliance tested. Multiple studies have shown energy savings at the substation level but not at the level of a specific residence and appliance; hence, the latter is the focus of this analysis. The appliances are determined based on the type of heating and cooling loads, and the daily duration of use for each appliance, which contributes to the total monthly consumption that is billed for a household are included in this study. Energy savings in Malaysia has been a focus of many current studies, and this study is the first attempt to achieve energy savings through the implementation of CVR. No published work has compared individual appliances that truly benefits from CVR, and this is addressed in this study. The main contribution of this study is that it provides very detailed and measured data that are used to analyze and generate energy savings for very specific residential appliances intended to meet every 1% voltage drop. The load model is developed for the common household appliances in Malaysia, and then a voltage reduction study is applied to the appliances as well as the Malaysian distribution networks. Here, we also provide insight for performing voltage reduction at an electric vehicle (EV) charging station in Malaysia. The results of this study should serve as a foundation for all practicing utilities engineers to address the issue of CVR in Malaysia. The CVR factors for residential, commercial, and industrial networks in Malaysia are also published in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The climate data used for dynamic energy simulation of buildings located in urban regions are usually collected in meteorological stations situated in rural areas, which do not accurately represent the urban microclimate (e.g., urban heat island effect), and this might affect the simulation accuracy. This paper aims at quantitatively evaluating the effects of heat island on a high-rise building's energy performance based on the microclimate simulation tool ENVI-met and the building energy simulation tool COMFIE. However, the computation of microclimate models is time consuming; it is not possible to simulate every day of a year in a reasonable time. This paper proposes a method that generates hourly "site-specific climate data" to avoid long microclimate simulation times. A coupling method of ENVI-met and COMFIE was developed for more precise building energy simulation, accounting for the heat island effect. It was applied to a high-rise building in Wuhan, China. The results showed that the yearly average urban heat island effect intensity at the height of 3 m was estimated to be 0.55 °C and decreased with height. Compared to the simulation considering the outdoor temperature variation with the height and orientation, using the original climate data collected in rural areas led to an overestimation of the heating load by around 5.8% and an underestimation of the cooling load by around 8.7%. Compared to the weather file at the height of 3 m near the north facade neglecting the temperature variation along the height, the heating load was overestimated by 8.2% and the cooling load was underestimated by 10.8%. The methods proposed in this paper can be used for the more precise application of urban building energy simulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning an optimal control strategy from the optimized operating dataset is a feasible way to improve the operational efficiency of HVAC systems. The operation dataset is the key to ensuring the global optimality and universality of the operation strategy. Currently, the model-based method is commonly used to generate datasets that cover all operating scenarios throughout the cooling season. However, thousands of iterative optimizations of the model also lead to high computational costs. Therefore, this paper proposed a scenario reduction method in which similar operating scenarios were grouped into clusters to significantly reduce the number of optimization calculations. First, k-means clustering (with dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, and cooling load as features) was used to select typical scenarios from operating scenarios for the entire cooling season. Second, the model-based optimization was performed with the typical scenarios to generate the optimal operating dataset. Taking a railway station in Beijing as a case study, the results show that the optimization time for the typical scenarios was only 1.4 days, which was reduced by 93.1% compared with the 20.6 days required to optimize the complete cooling season scenario. The optimal control rules were extracted, respectively, from the above datasets generated under the two schemes, and the results show that the deviation of energy saving rate was only 0.45%. This study shows that the scenario reduction method can significantly speed up the generation of the optimal control strategy dataset while ensuring the energy-saving effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is currently no way for subway air-conditioning systems to adjust to changes in passenger capacity in terms of air-supply volume and air-supply temperature. In this paper, a study of the setting of the air-supply volume and controlling the temperature in subway trains was conducted. Based on the fact that the air-supply volume in a subway train needs to meet the requirements of cooling load and humidity load, as well as fresh-air volume, the minimum critical air-supply volume curve was determined on the basis of theoretical calculations under different passenger capacities. Under different passenger capacity and air-supply-volume conditions, the PMV (predicted mean vote) distribution of the subway train was simulated and calculated, and the results indicated that increasing the air-supply volume would not be sufficient to achieve PMV = 0. Therefore, in accordance with the theoretical formulation of the PMV, multiple linear regression was used to fit the temperature-control curve for various passenger capacities. A simulation calculation of the subway train was used to assess the uniformity of the flow field and the temperature field within the subway train in accordance with EN14750. It is evident from the results that under the control curve of the air-supply volume and temperature under different passenger capacities, the uniformity of the flow field and the temperature field can meet the standard requirements. By using the air-supply volume and temperature-control curve proposed in this paper, it is possible to adjust the air-supply volume in real-time, control the temperature of the air-conditioning system of the subway train, improve the passenger comfort of the train, and reduce the energy consumption of the air-conditioning system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South African universities boast a remarkable solar photovoltaic (PV) resource as a primary renewable energy component. Due to high peak demand tariffs and inherent prominent heating and cooling loads, fast and granular demand response programs are well established within typical campus grids, with electrical networks adapted towards hosting centralized PV plants and emergency diesel generation. With unreliable utility supply and aging infrastructure comes a natural landscape and niche application for campus microgrids (MG) in South Africa. One such case, the University of the Free State's QwaQwa satellite campus in the Phuthaditjhaba district, is no exception to this, as it has sufficient solar PV generation, but it also has an unreliable utility component. This paper investigates a possible MG for the UFS QwaQwa campus with an emphasis on Hybrid PV-Diesel dispatch strategies, specifically, to ensure uptime during the loss of grid supply and decrease fuel usage. The proposed centralized diesel-PV MG system achieves a diesel cost reduction of 21.55%, based on simulated results using actual campus load data from 2019. The approach improves electricity availability, supplying 100% of all campus demand, compared to 70% under a de-centralized approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A ceiling cooling system integrated with a mechanical ventilation system has been widely used in modern buildings with large sensible cooling loads due to the high thermal comfort level and large energy efficiency. However, there is a lack of systematic research on the influence factors such as ceiling surface temperature and cooling load on the indoor air distribution and thermal environment, and the impact of ventilation system type in the ceiling cooling room is still unclear. Therefore, this paper presented an experimental study of indoor air distribution and thermal environment in a ceiling cooling (CC) room with mixing ventilation (MV), underfloor air distribution (UFAD) and stratum ventilation (SV); the ceiling surface temperature was 17 °C–26 °C and the internal or external cooling load was 41.5 W/m2–69.5 W/m2. The results showed that the vertical air temperature difference and contaminant removal effectiveness were 0.2 °C–0.4 °C and 0.53–0.85 with CC + MV, 0 °C–1.2 °C and 0.68–1.25 with CC + UFAD and 0.3 °C–0.9 °C and 0.50–0.83 with CC + SV, and the corresponding heat removal effectiveness and air diffusion performance index were 0.96–1.11 and 96–100%, 0.9–1.5 and 57–100% and 1.11–1.34 and 71–100%, respectively. Moreover, the difference between mean radiant temperature and air temperature and the predicted mean vote of thermal sensation were from 0 °C to 0.9 °C and between 0 and 0.26 with CC + MV, from −0.1 °C to 2.2 °C and between −0.1 and 0.42 with CC + UFAD and from −0.1 °C to 0.9 °C and between −0.2 and 0.13 with CC + SV. Hence, the ventilation system type clearly affected the indoor air distribution and thermal environment in the ceiling cooling room, and the experimental results would be beneficial for the design and control of a ceiling cooling system combined with a mechanical ventilation system in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, an experimental investigation of the performance improvement of a heat pump equipped with a two-phase ejector, called an "ejector–expansion heat pump (EEHP)", is proposed. The system performance of the EEHP is compared with that of a vapor-compression heat pump (VCHP). The improvement potential is determined and discussed. The heat pump test system based on a water-to-water heat pump that can experiment with both the EEHP and the VCHP is constructed. A two-phase ejector with a cooling load of up to 2500 W is installed for the experiment. The results show that the EEHP always produces a higher heating rate and COPHP than the VCHP under the specified working conditions. The heating COPHP is increased by 5.7–11.6% depending on the working conditions. It is also found that, under the same heat sink and heat source temperature, the EEHP can produce a lower compressor discharge temperature and a lower compressor pressure ratio than the VCHP. This is evidence that the two-phase ejector can provide the compressor with better working characteristics, which yields a longer compressor lifetime. It is demonstrated that the expansion pressure ratio is key to the performance of the EEHP. A larger expansion pressure ratio yields greater improvement potential when compared with the VCHP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a methodology for predicting a warehouse's reduced load while offering flexibility. Physics-based energy simulations are first performed to model flexibility events, which involve adjusting cooling setpoints with controlled temperature increases to reduce the cooling load. The warehouse building encompasses office and storage spaces, and three cooling scenarios are implemented, i.e., exclusive storage area cooling, exclusive office area cooling, and cooling in both spaces, to expand the study's potential applications. Next, the simulation data are utilized for training machine learning (ML)-based pipelines, predicting five subsequent hourly energy consumption values an hour before the setpoint adjustments, providing time to plan participation in demand response programs or prepare for charging electric vehicles. For each scenario, the performance of an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and a tree-based ML algorithm are compared. Moreover, an expanding window scheme is utilized, gradually incorporating new data and emulating online learning. The results indicate the superior performance of the tree-based algorithm, with an average error of less than 3.5% across all cases and a maximum hourly error of 7%. The achieved accuracy confirms the method's reliability even in dynamic scenarios where the integrated load of storage space and offices needs to be predicted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes the optimal algorithm for controlling the HVAC system in the target building. Previous studies have analyzed pre-selected algorithms without considering the unique data characteristics of the target building, such as location, climate conditions, and HVAC system type. To address this, we compare the accuracy of cooling load prediction using ANN and LSTM algorithms, widely used in building energy research, to determine the optimal algorithm for HVAC control in the target building. We develop a simulation model calibrated with actual data to ensure data reliability and compare the energy consumption of the existing HVAC control method and the two algorithms-based methods. Results show that the ANN algorithm, with a CV(RMSE) of 12.7%, has a higher prediction accuracy than the LSTM algorithm, CV(RMSE) of 17.3%, making it a more suitable algorithm for HVAC control. Furthermore, implementing the ANN-based approach results in a 3.2% cooling energy reduction from the optimal control of Air Handling Unit (AHU) Discharge Air Temperature (DAT) compared to the fixed DAT at 12.8 °C in a representative day. This study demonstrates that ML-based HVAC system control can effectively reduce cooling energy consumption in HVAC systems, providing an effective strategy for energy conservation and improved HVAC system efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the Ant-based Radial Basis Function Network (ARBFN) is proposed to determine the optimal daily dispatch of ice-storage air-conditioning systems. ARBFN is a novel algorithm that is integrated into the Ant Colony Optimization and Radial Basis Function Network. ARBFN is used to construct the function of the cost and operation for each chiller and ice-storage tank and is used to simulate the polynomial function of the cooling load and the cost of power consumption. The best learning rate in the training process is adjusted in ARBFN to improve the accuracy of constructing models for chillers and ice-storage tanks. The electricity savings are thus 4.130% on a summer day and 7.381% on a non-summer day. The results have shown that ARBFN can more accurately calculate the actual power consumption and cooling capability of each chiller and ice-storage tank. Lastly, ACO is used to calculate the daily dispatch of the ice-storage air-conditioning system. The results demonstrated the optimization of energy savings and efficiency for the operation of the ice-storage air-conditioning system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: What are the main findings? A hybrid desiccant M-cycle cooling system with an HDH unit is proposed for simultaneous cooling and water production. Three typical operational modes are analysed and compared in terms of cooling and water production. What is the implication of the main finding? The recirculation mode exhibited a superior cooling performance than the other two modes. The water production rates and system COP were similar among the three modes. In this paper, the cooling and freshwater generation performance of a novel hybrid configuration of a solid desiccant-based M-cycle cooling system (SDM) combined with a humidification–dehumidification (HDH) desalination unit is analysed and compared in three operational modes: ventilation, recirculation, and half recirculation. The HDH unit in this system recycles the moist waste air sourced from the M-cycle cooler and rotary desiccant wheel of the SDM system to enhance water production. A mathematical model was established and solved using TRNSYS and EES software. The results of this study indicate that the recirculation mode exhibited superior cooling performance compared to the other two modes, producing up to 7.91 kW of cooling load and maintaining a supply air temperature below 20.85 °C and humidity of 12.72 g/kg under various ambient conditions. All the operational modes showed similar water production rates of around 52.74 kg/h, 52.43 kg/h, and 52.14 kg/h for the recirculation, half-recirculation and ventilation modes, respectively, across a range of operating temperatures. The recirculation mode also exhibited a higher COP compared to the other modes, as the environmental temperature and relative humidity were above 35 °C and 50%. However, it should be noted that the implementation of the recirculation mode resulted in a higher water consumption rate, with a maximum value of 5.52 kg/h when the inlet air reached 45 °C, which partially offset the benefits of this mode. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The closed evaporative cooling tower (CECT) is widely used in the field of industrial cooling. At present, most CECTs still mainly adopt the horizontal-tube falling-film cooling method. In this paper, a novel vertical CECT using 3D deformation tubes is developed. To investigate the vertical surface falling-film evaporative cooling effect of this novel cooling equipment, a traditional horizontal CECT was modified to produce a prototype of vertical non-packing CECT. The cooling performance of the novel vertical CECT has been investigated and compared to the previous traditional horizontal CECT by experimental method. The results show that the convective heat transfer coefficient of the water film outside the tube was increased by 5.87~12.95% and the overall cooling performance was increased by 7.31% on average. This indicates that the cooling load can be increased by changing the traditional horizontal-tube falling-film evaporative cooling method to the vertical falling-film evaporative cooling method. Moreover, the heat flux of the novel vertical CECT decreases by about 7% when the wet bulb temperature increases by 1 °C under the test range of wet bulb temperature, which indicates that the ambient wet bulb temperature has an obvious influence on the cooling load. The research results can provide reference for the optimization design of the CECT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, an economic investigation is performed to identify the economic feasibility of a solar-powered adsorption cooling system. In the first step, the system is mathematically formulated, and the solar fraction of the system is calculated. After that, the system is economically optimized for a cooling load related to a single-family house using particle swarm optimization. In order to identify the most efficient application of the system, the cost per 1 kW of cooling capacity is calculated over different cooling loads. The results demonstrated that the system under study is more suitable for small-scale applications. In addition, sensitivity to electricity price analysis demonstrates that the main bottleneck of cost-efficient system design is the initial price of the solar collector. Therefore, in the next step, the former sensitivity analysis to electricity price is jointly performed over different initial prices of the solar collector at two different cooling loads. Finally, by considering the cost of CO2 capture and the amount of avoided CO2 by utilizing solar energy, the environmental benefit of the system under investigation is calculated. The results show that the optimum solution is 13% more cost-efficient compared to the base design. In addition, taking the CO2 capture parameters into account, the environmentally friendly case has 21% more annual cost compared to the optimal solution one. However, this extra cost can be justified through CO2 capture cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important aspect in improving the energy efficiency of buildings is the effective use of building heating and cooling load prediction models. A lot of studies have been undertaken in recent years to anticipate cooling and heating loads. Choosing the most effective input parameters as well as developing a high-accuracy forecasting model are the most difficult and important aspects of prediction. The goal of this research is to create an intelligent data-driven load forecast model for residential construction heating and cooling load intensities. In this paper, the shuffled shepherd red deer optimization linked self-systematized intelligent fuzzy reasoning-based neural network (SSRD-SsIF-NN) is introduced as a novel intelligent data-driven load prediction method. To test the suggested approaches, a simulated dataset based on the climate of Dhahran, Saudi Arabia will be employed, with building system parameters as input factors and heating and cooling loads as output results for each system. The simulation of this research is executed using MATLAB software. Finally, the theoretical and experimental results demonstrate the efficacy of the presented techniques. In terms of Mean Square Error (MSE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Regression (R) values, Mean Absolute Error (MAE), coefficient of determination (R2), and other metrics, their prediction performance is compared to that of other conventional methods. It shows that the proposed method has achieved the finest performance of load prediction compared with the conventional methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building energy consumption prediction has become an important research problem within the context of sustainable homes and smart cities. Data-driven approaches have been regarded as the most suitable for integration into smart houses. With the wide deployment of IoT sensors, the data generated from these sensors can be used for modeling and forecasting energy consumption patterns. Existing studies lag in prediction accuracy and various attributes of buildings are not very well studied. This study follows a data-driven approach in this regard. The novelty of the paper lies in the fact that an ensemble model is proposed, which provides higher performance regarding cooling and heating load prediction. Moreover, the influence of different features on heating and cooling load is investigated. Experiments are performed by considering different features such as glazing area, orientation, height, relative compactness, roof area, surface area, and wall area. Results indicate that relative compactness, surface area, and wall area play a significant role in selecting the appropriate cooling and heating load for a building. The proposed model achieves 0.999 R 2 for heating load prediction and 0.997 R 2 for cooling load prediction, which is superior to existing state-of-the-art models. The precise prediction of heating and cooling load, can help engineers design energy-efficient buildings, especially in the context of future smart homes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the established model of a single resonance energy selective electron refrigerator with heat leakage in the previous literature, this paper performs multi-objective optimization with finite-time thermodynamic theory and NSGA-II algorithm. Cooling load ( R ¯ ), coefficient of performance (ε), ecological function ( E C O ¯ ), and figure of merit ( χ ¯ ) of the ESER are taken as objective functions. Energy boundary (E ′ / k B) and resonance width (Δ E / k B) are regarded as optimization variables and their optimal intervals are obtained. The optimal solutions of quadru-, tri-, bi-, and single-objective optimizations are obtained by selecting the minimum deviation indices with three approaches of TOPSIS, LINMAP, and Shannon Entropy; the smaller the value of deviation index, the better the result. The results show that values of E ′ / k B and Δ E / k B are closely related to the values of the four optimization objectives; selecting the appropriate values of the system can design the system for optimal performance. The deviation indices are 0.0812 with LINMAP and TOPSIS approaches for four-objective optimization ( E C O ¯ − R ¯ − ε − χ ¯ ), while the deviation indices are 0.1085, 0.8455, 0.1865, and 0.1780 for four single-objective optimizations of maximum E C O ¯ , R ¯ , ε , and χ ¯ , respectively. Compared with single-objective optimization, four-objective optimization can better take different optimization objectives into account by choosing appropriate decision-making approaches. The optimal values of E ′ / k B and Δ E / k B range mainly from 12 to 13, and 1.5 to 2.5, respectively, for the four-objective optimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The foundation of energy-efficient architectural design is modeling heating and cooling loads (HLs and CLs), which defines the heating and cooling apparatus constraints necessary to maintain a suitable interior air environment. It is possible that analytical models for energy-efficient buildings might offer an accurate evaluation of the influence that various building designs would have. The implementation of these instruments, however, might be a process that requires a significant amount of manual labor, a significant amount of time, and is reliant on user experiences. In light of this, the authors of this paper present two unique methods for estimating the CL of residential structures in the form of complex mathematical concepts. These methodologies include an evolutionary web algorithm (EWA), biogeography-based optimization (BBO), and a hybridization of an adaptive neuro-fuzzy interface system (ANFIS), namely BBO-ANFIS and EWA-ANFIS. The findings initiated from each of the suggested models are evaluated with the help of various performance metrics. Moreover, it is possible to determine which model is the most effective by comparing their coefficient of determination ( R 2   ) and its root mean square error (RMSE) to each other. In mapping non-linear connections between input and output variables, the observed findings showed that the models used have a great capability. In addition, the results showed that BBO-ANFIS was the superior forecasting model out of the two provided models, with the lowest value of RMSE and the greatest value of R 2   (RMSE = 0.10731 and 0.11282 and R 2   = 0.97776 and 0.97552 for training and testing phases, respectively). The EWA-ANFIS also demonstrated RMSE and R 2   values of 0.18682 and 0.17681 and 0.93096 and 0.93874 for the training and testing phases, respectively. Finally, this study has proven that ANN is a powerful tool and will be useful for predicting the CL in residential buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aiming at the issues of unreasonable cooperation schemes and inappropriate setting of parameters of the refrigeration system with multi-chiller plants, this paper presents a cooperative optimization method to improve the energy performance of the system composed of water-cooled chillers and air-cooled heat pumps. The cooperative optimization process includes scheme optimization and parameter optimization. To content the dynamic cooling load, the working sequence of air-cooled heat pumps and water-cooled chillers with variable frequency chilled water pumps is first optimized. Based on the optimal scheme, a back-propagation neural network (BPNN) coupled with particle swarm optimization (PSO) is implemented to explore the preferred operating parameters of multiple chiller plants corresponding to the best coefficient of performance (COP). Compared with the performance of the initial operation module, the energy consumption of the water pump and fan decreases by over 50%, and the COP of the refrigeration system is improved by 16% (COP = 3.85) through the scheme operation. After parameter optimization, the total energy consumption is reduced by 21.7%, and COP is increased by 26.5% (COP = 4.20). Therefore, the proposed cooperative optimization method can provide useful operation guidance for the refrigeration system with multi-chiller plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

User behaviour can significantly affect indoor thermal comfort conditions, as well as energy consumption, especially in existing buildings with high thermal masses where natural cross ventilation is the main strategy to reduce cooling loads. The aims of this paper were: (i) to compare how behavioural changes evaluated by means of rule-based and stochastic models lead to changes in indoor thermal comfort levels, and (ii) to define the patterns of indoor thermal comfort in historic residential buildings in future scenarios. To this end, a historic building located in Molfetta (Southern Italy) was analysed using a dynamic energy simulation engine in five weather scenarios (Typical Meteorological Year, current extreme weather file 2018, predicted weather files for 2020, 2050, and 2080 generated by morphing method), and stochastic and rule-based models for window openings were adopted and compared. The results showed that the stochastic model was more accurate than the rule-based one, resulting in a reduction of discomfort conditions during the summer period between 30% and 50% in all climate scenarios. However, although the differences between predicted discomfort levels using rule-based and stochastic models tended to increase, discomfort levels still appeared to be not acceptable in the 2050 and 2080 scenarios due to the rising temperature driven by climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this research is to design an energy-efficient off-grid vending machine that has a refrigeration system powered by an environmentally friendly refrigerant. The paper presents details from the equipment's design phase in terms of the resistance structure, photovoltaic panels area dimensioning, but also in terms of the necessary cooling load to be provided by the refrigeration system. The refrigerant chosen was R290 following a comparative analysis, which showed that it has an efficiency 6.6% higher than R134a. During the monitoring periods, the outdoors temperature varied between −4–28 °C, the relative humidity between 22–100% and yet only a slight indoor temperature variation of ±1.5 °C compared to the set value was recorded. The battery module managed to store enough energy from the photovoltaic panels to keep the vending machine functional through three consecutive days with adverse environmental conditions, as evidenced by the low variation of indoor temperature [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybrid renewable energy systems are subject to extensive research around the world and different designs have found their way to the market and have been commercialized. These systems usually employ multiple components, both renewable and conventional, combined in a way to increase the system's overall efficiency and resilience and to lower GHG emissions. In this paper, a hybrid renewable energy system was designed for residential use and its annual energy performance was investigated and optimized. The multi-module hybrid system consists of a Ground-Air Heat Exchanger (GAHX), Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) panels and Air to Water Heat Pump (AWHP). The developed system's annual performance was simulated in the TRaNsient SYStem (TRNSYS) environment and optimized using the General Algebraic Modelling System (GAMS) platform. Multi-objective non-linear optimization algorithms were developed and applied to define optimal system design and performance parameters while reducing cost and GHG emissions. The results revealed that the designed system was able to satisfy building thermal heating/cooling loads throughout the year. The ground source heat exchanger contributed 21.3% and 26.3% of the energy during heating and cooling seasons, respectively. The initial design was optimized in terms of key performance parameters and module sizes. The annual simulation analysis showed that the system was able to self-generate and meet nearly 29.4% of the total HVAC electricity needs, with the rest being supplied by the grid. The annual system module performance efficiencies were 13.4% for the PVT electric and 5.5% for the PVT thermal, with an AWHP COP of 4.0. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a meta-modeling workflow to forecast the cooling and heating loads of buildings at individual and district levels in the early design stage. Seven input variables, with large impacts on building loads, are selected for designing meta-models to establish the MySQL database. The load profiles of office, commercial, and hotel models are simulated with EnergyPlus in batches. A sequence-to-sequence (Seq2Seq) model based on the deep-learning method of a one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) is introduced to achieve rapid forecasting of all-year hourly building loads. The method performs well with the load effective hour rate (LEHR) of around 90% and MAPE less than 10%. Finally, this meta-modeling workflow is applied to a district as a case study in Shanghai, China. The forecasting results well match the actual loads with R2 of 0.9978 and 0.9975, respectively, for the heating and cooling load. The LEHR value of all-year hourly forecasting loads is 98.4%, as well as an MAPE of 4.4%. This meta-modeling workflow expands the applicability of building-physics-based methods and improves the time resolution of conventional data-driven methods. It shows small forecasting errors and fast computing speed while meeting the required precision and convenience of engineering in the building early design stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to improve the accuracy of the multiple load forecasting of a regional integrated energy system, a short-term multiple load forecasting model based on the quantum weighted GRU and multi-task learning framework is proposed in this paper. Firstly, correlation analysis is carried out using a maximum information coefficient to select the input of the model. Then, a multi-task learning architecture is constructed based on the quantum weighted GRU neural network, and the coupling information among multiple loads is learned through the sharing layer in order to improve the prediction accuracy of multiple loads. Finally, the PSO algorithm is used to optimize the parameters of the quantum weighted GRU. The simulation data of a regional integrated energy system in northern China are used to predict the power and cooling loads on summer weekdays and rest days, and the results show that, compared with the LSTM, GRU and single task learning QWGRU models, the proposed model is more effective in the multiple load forecasting of a regional integrated energy system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study introduces a novel direct expansion air conditioning (DX AC) system with three evaporators (DX-TE) to enhance indoor temperature and humidity control. Operating in two modes, the DX-TE system provides variable cooling output, adapting to fluctuating indoor cooling loads while maintaining uniform air supply. Experimental and simulation studies were conducted to investigate the system's operational characteristics. An experimental setup was established to obtain preliminary steady-state data, followed by the development and validation of a steady-state mathematical model. Simulation studies were then performed to optimize the evaporator sizes. The results indicate that the DX-TE system delivers variable cooling capacities at a constant compressor speed and airflow rate, outperforming conventional variable frequency DX AC systems in cooling and dehumidification. The evaporator area ratio significantly impacts the system's performance, with smaller ratios yielding a larger output range. As the area ratio increases from 1:1 to 1:3, the cooling capacity range in Modes 1 and 2 increases by 33.6% and 14.3%, respectively, while the dehumidification range expands by 58.6% and 51.69%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Buildings are one the largest energy-consuming sectors in the world, and it is crucial to find solutions to reduce their energy consumption. One way to evaluate these solutions is using building simulation software, which provides a comprehensive perspective. In this article, using DesignBuilder software (v 6.1), the effect of using phase-change materials (PCMs) on the external walls and ceiling of the Department of Mechanical Engineering of Shahid Beheshti University (Tehran, Iran) has been investigated. The methodology involves the use of a layer of PCMs for three locations: (1) on the walls; (2) on the ceiling; and (3) on both the walls and ceiling, with/without PV panels, which leads to seven scenarios (alongside the reference one). The result shows that using PCMs has a greater impact on the heating load than the cooling one and is more effective on ceilings than walls. For the simultaneous use of PCMs in the ceilings and walls, the heating and cooling loads, in comparison with the initial condition of the building, are reduced by 24%, and 12%, respectively. When using solar panels, the heating load increases by 12.6%, and the cooling load decreases by 8.6%, whereas the total energy consumption of the building is fairly constant when using both PV panels and PCMs. In these last conditions, the primary evaluated values shifted significantly. Notably, CO2 emissions saw a nearly 50% reduction, making the simultaneous use of PV panels and PCMs on both walls and ceilings the best performance option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building Performance Simulation extensively uses statistical learning techniques for quicker insights and improved accessibility. These techniques help understand the relationship between input variables and the desired outputs, and they can predict unknown observations. Prediction becomes more informative with uncertainty quantification, which involves computing prediction intervals. Conformal prediction has emerged over the past 25 years as a flexible and rigorous method for estimating uncertainty. This approach can be applied to any pre-trained model, creating statistically rigorous uncertainty sets or intervals for model predictions. This study uses data from simulated buildings to demonstrate the powerful applications of conformal prediction in Building Performance Simulation (BPS) and, consequently, to the broader energy sector. Results show that conformal prediction can be applied when any assumptions about input and output variables are made, enhancing understanding and facilitating informed decision-making in energy system design and operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the hot climate, energy consumption for refrigeration is significantly higher in the subtropical monsoon climate region. Combined with renewable energy and ice-storage technology, a model predictive control model of the regional cooling system was proposed, which was conducive to improving the flexibility of the regional cooling system and the ability of peak shifting and valley filling. In this model, an artificial bee colony (ABC) optimized back propagation (BP) neural network was used to predict the cooling load of the regional cooling system, and the model parameter identification method was adopted, combining utilizing a river-water-source heat pump and ice-storage technology. The results showed that the load prediction algorithm of the ABC-BP neural network had a high accuracy, and the variance coefficient of load prediction root-mean-square error (RMSE) was 16.67%, which was lower than BP, support vector regression (SVR), and long short-term memory (LSTM). In addition, compared with the three control strategies of chiller priority, ice-storage priority, and fixed proportion, the operation strategy optimized by the comprehensive model can reduce the average daily cost by 19.20%, 4.45%, and 5.10%, respectively, and the maximum daily energy consumption by 30.02%, 18.08%, and 8.90%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, there has been a growing interest in sustainable agricultural methods aimed at reducing energy consumption and mitigating environmental impacts. Among these methods, the integration of rooftop greenhouses into buildings has emerged as a promising solution for urban agriculture, offering various advantages such as energy-saving effects on both the host building and the rooftop greenhouse, improved resource use efficiency, enhanced food security, and reduced environmental impacts. However, there has been limited research on the energy-saving impact of rooftop greenhouses under different conditions and detailed heat transfer analysis based on actual buildings and rooftop greenhouses. The objective of this study is to investigate the energy benefits of building-integrated rooftop greenhouses by evaluating various operating scenarios for both the building and the greenhouse. A container and upper rooftop greenhouse structure were constructed, and building energy simulation models for the target system were developed. Four different operating scenarios for the greenhouse and three different operating scenarios for the building were compared. Depending on the operating scenarios, the total energy loads of the container and RTG were reduced by 18.4% to 24.7% and 0.7% to 6.3%, respectively. The findings of this study can be utilized for the development of optimized greenhouse control strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cooling of server components has been developed over the past few years in order to meet increasing cooling requirements. The growth in performance and power density increases the cooling demand. To gain a better understanding of the evolution and possible future technology developments in the field of data center cooling, a patent analysis method was used with a focus on the server and computer room levels. After the patent extraction from the European patent database for the period 2000–2023, the search results were classified and analyzed. Most of the patents deal with air or liquid cooling. Since 2015, a technological shift from air to liquid cooling can be identified on the level of patent activities. In conclusion, from the patent analysis, it can be derived that liquid cooling will continue to gain in importance in the future and could also be combined with other approaches in the form of hybrid cooling. However, air cooling may still be relevant, even if the main cooling load is handled by liquid-based approaches. At the same time, the optimization potential for air cooling seems to have been largely exploited in comparison to liquid cooling, as can be seen from the falling number of the patent applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prediction of heating and cooling loads using machine learning algorithms has been considered frequently in the research literature. However, many of the studies considered the default values of the hyperparameters. This manuscript addresses both the selection of the best regressor and the tuning of the hyperparameter values using a novel nature-inspired algorithm, namely, the Multi-Objective Plum Tree Algorithm. The two objectives that were optimized were the averages of the heating and cooling predictions. The three algorithms that were compared were the Extra Trees Regressor, the Gradient Boosting Regressor, and the Random Forest Regressor of the sklearn machine learning Python library. We considered five hyperparameters which were configurable for each of the three regressors. The solutions were ranked using the MOORA method. The Multi-Objective Plum Tree Algorithm returned a root mean square error value for heating equal to 0.035719 and a root mean square error for cooling equal to 0.076197. The results are comparable to the ones obtained using standard multi-objective algorithms such as the Multi-Objective Grey Wolf Optimizer, Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization, and NSGA-II. The results are also performant concerning the previous studies, which considered the same experimental dataset. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban overheating, intensified by climate change, poses a critical challenge in Central European cities, witnessing a rise in tropical days. Conventional mechanical cooling systems in buildings significantly contribute to carbon dioxide emissions, exacerbating global warming. In response, windcatchers—traditional Iranian natural cooling systems—emerge as a promising sustainable solution for contemporary architecture, even in non-arid climates. This research aims to evaluate windcatchers' efficacy in improving building thermal comfort in Central European climates, focusing on Vienna's urban environment. This study identifies optimal windcatcher designs by analyzing key variables: height variation, inlet dimensions, urban exposure, Building Management System (BMS) temperature thresholds, and integration with an earth tube system using Design Builder simulation software version 6. The findings reveal that a windcatcher standing at 2.5 m tall, with inlet dimensions of 0.9 m by 1.4 m, in an open, less densely populated urban setting, and with open valves when indoor temperatures surpass 22 °C, demonstrates the most effective reduction in cooling load. Moreover, both one-sided and two-sided windcatchers outperform conventional ventilation through openings. Additionally, combining a one-sided windcatcher with an earth tube system ensures efficient cooling even when exterior temperatures exceed 25 degrees Celsius. When augmented by a heat pump, this integrated system can provide heated ventilation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficiency is currently a hot topic in engineering due to the monetary and environmental benefits it brings. One aspect of energy efficiency in particular, the prediction of thermal loads (specifically heating and cooling), plays a significant role in reducing the costs associated with energy use and in minimising the risks associated with climate change. Recently, data-driven approaches, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) techniques, have provided cost-effective and high-quality solutions for solving energy efficiency problems. This research investigates various ML methods for predicting energy efficiency in buildings, with a particular emphasis on heating and cooling loads. The review includes many ML techniques, including ensemble learning, support vector machines (SVM), artificial neural networks (ANN), statistical models, and probabilistic models. Existing studies are analysed and compared in terms of new criteria, including the datasets used, the associated platforms, and, more importantly, the interpretability of the models generated. The results show that, despite the problem under investigation being studied using a range of ML techniques, few have focused on developing interpretable classifiers that can be exploited by stakeholders to support the design of energy-efficient residential buildings for climate impact minimisation. Further research in this area is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, a numerical approach is created to assess the effective parameters of power transformer thermal management and, as a result, improve their cooling systems. This study analyzes the radiator's thermal performance across several arrangements and optimizes the dimensions and configurations for varied cooling loads from a techno-economic perspective. The optimization criteria were the radiator's height (L), fin spacing (D), and number of fins (N). Due to the great complexity of the generated models, the coupled thermo-hydraulic numerical simulations were carried out on a computer cluster. An in-house radiator test facility was constructed for the experiments in order to verify the numerical model. The simulation findings accord well with the empirically obtained values. A total of 76 radiator sets were investigated. Following that, the generated findings were used to perform an optimization analysis. Finally, the response surface method was used to establish an ideal radiator layout for the specified cooling capacity at the lowest possible cost. These findings reveal that the best cooling performance is obtained when the spacing between the fins is 50 mm. Cooling capacity per unit cost rises as radiator size decreases. The cost factor and geometric details were shown to have strong connections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The heat rejected by outdoor units of split A/C conditioners can impact the ambient outdoor environment of mixed-mode buildings. Nevertheless, how this environmental impact may affect the space-conditioning energy use and indoor air pollution is poorly understood. By coupling EnergyPlus and Fluent, this study examines the effects of outdoor units' heat rejection on the building surroundings, building cooling load, and indoor PM2.5 exposure of a six-storey mixed-mode building. The building had an open-plan room on each floor, with the outdoor unit positioned below the window. The coupled model was run for a selected day when the building was cooled by air conditioning and natural ventilation. Five mixed-mode cooling strategies were simulated, reflecting different window-opening schedules, airflow rates of outdoor units, and cooling set-points. The results indicate that compared with the always-air-conditioned mode, the mixed-mode operation could significantly mitigate the negative impact of heat rejection on space-cooling energy consumption. Increasing the airflow rate of outdoor units led to a lower increase in demand for space cooling and lower indoor PM2.5 exposure. If one of the six rooms needs to be cooled to a lower temperature than the others; choosing the bottom-floor room helped achieve more energy savings and better indoor air quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for approximately 50% of the total energy consumption in buildings. Advanced control and optimal operation, seen as key technologies in reducing the energy consumption of HVAC systems, indispensably rely on an accurate prediction of the building's heating/cooling load. Therefore, the goal of this research is to develop a model capable of making such accurate predictions. To streamline the process, this study employs sensitivity and correlation analysis for feature selection, thereby eliminating redundant parameters, and addressing distortion problems caused by multicollinearity among input parameters. Four model identification methods including multivariate polynomial regression (MPR), support vector regression (SVR), multilayer perceptron (MLP), and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) are implemented in parallel to extract value from diverse building datasets. These models are trained and selected autonomously based on statistical performance criteria. The prediction models were deployed in a nearly zero-energy office building, and the impacts of feature selection, training set size, and real-world uncertainty factors were analyzed and compared. The results showed that feature selection considerably improved prediction accuracy while reducing model dimensionality. The research also recognized that prediction accuracy during model deployment can be influenced significantly by factors like personnel mobility during holidays and weather forecast uncertainties. Additionally, for nearly zero-energy buildings, the thermal inertia of the building itself can considerably impact prediction accuracy in certain scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial intelligence algorithms (AIAs) have gained widespread adoption in air conditioning load prediction. However, their prediction accuracy is substantially influenced by the quality of training samples. To improve the prediction accuracy of air conditioning load, this study presents an AIA prediction model based on the method of similarity sample screening. Initially, the comprehensive similarity coefficient between samples was obtained by using the gray correlation method improved with information entropy. Subsequently, a subset of closely related samples was extracted from the original dataset and employed to train the artificial intelligence prediction model. Finally, the trained AIA prediction model was used to predict the air conditioning load. The results illustrate that the method of similarity sample screening effectively improved the prediction accuracy of BP neural network (BPNN) and extreme learning machine (ELM) prediction models. However, it is essential to note that this approach may not be suitable for genetic algorithm BPNN (GABPNN) and support vector regression (SVR) models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to estimate the heating load (HL) and the cooling load (CL) of a residential building using neural networks and to simulate the thermal behavior of a four-layered wall with different orientations. The neural network models were developed and tested using Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) and Radial Basis (RB) networks with three algorithms, namely the Levenberg-Marquardt (LM), the Scaled Conjugate Gradient (SCG), and the Radial Basis Function (RB). To generate the data, 624 models were used, including six building shapes, four orientations, five glazing areas, and five ways of distributing glazing. The LM model showed the best accuracy compared to the experimental data. The L-shape facing south with windows on the east and south sides and a 20% window area was found to be the best shape for balancing the lighting and ventilation requirements with the heating and cooling loads near the mean value. The heating and cooling loads for this shape were 22.5 kWh and 24.5 kWh, respectively. The simulation part used the LH algorithm coded in MATLAB to analyze the temperature and heat transfer across the wall layers and the effect of solar radiation. The maximum and minimum percentage differences obtained by HAP are 10.7% and 2.7%, respectively. The results showed that the insulation layer and the wall orientation were important factors for optimizing the thermal comfort of a building. This study demonstrated the effectiveness of neural networks and simulation methods for building energy analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy consumption in residential buildings accounts for a large portion of global energy use. Understanding residential building load characteristics is important in both the design and technical suitability analysis of residential air conditioning systems in terms of energy efficiency and carbon reduction. However, most current research mainly focuses on the load characteristics of individual buildings and not on the variation in load characteristics of building aggregation. In addition, the load characteristics of building aggregations vary with the building scale; however, most studies have compared those of buildings under a certain scale, and the change with the increase in building scale is still unclear. The main purpose of this study is to explore load characteristic differences among residential buildings of different scales and the impacts of those differences on HVAC system design. Based on the monitoring data collected in a residential district in Zhengzhou, China, we analyzed the load characteristics among different households and combinations of different numbers of households from the variation in peak load, total consumption and load distribution, as well as the daily load volatility. We indicate that the load characteristics of heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems of different scales should be considered in the design and operation stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exterior shading devices and outdoor units can be closely coupled since these two building components are commonly installed next to each other. This study uses a coupled EnergyPlus-Fluent modeling approach to examine how a combination of exterior shading and heat rejection from outdoor units can affect the ambient outdoor environment of a building, and how changes in the ambient outdoor environment can influence cooling loads and indoor PM2.5 exposure. Three exterior shading devices were simulated, including horizontal overhangs, vertical overhangs, and vertical fins. Data from wind-tunnel experiments and field measurements were used to ensure the accuracy of the airflow model, energy model, and pollution model developed in this study. Results indicate that horizontal overhangs could almost offset the increase in cooling loads due to increased ambient outdoor temperatures caused by heat rejection. The use of vertical overhangs did not always mean lower demand for space cooling when heat rejection was considered. Heat rejection, horizontal overhangs, and vertical overhangs could help reduce indoor PM2.5 exposure, while indoor air pollution was worse after the implementation of vertical fins. This study shows how exterior shading devices and outdoor units can be coupled to achieve better building energy efficiency and improved occupant health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to urban warming, the energy demand for cooling buildings is rising. The current study used CitySim (building energy model) to estimate the cooling energy requirements for 40 buildings in downtown Dubai using high-resolution climate data from weather research and forecasting (WRF) coupled with the single layer urban canopy model (SLUCM). Simulating the four mitigation scenarios allowed for the examination of the reduction in cooling load caused by the addition of greenery at a rate ranging from 25% to 100%. The insulated building's cooling demand reduced by a maximum of 13.89% under 100% GI (M4). Scenario M4 resulted in a reduction of 4.6 kWh/m2 and 3.1 kWh/m2 for the non-insulated and insulated low-rise residential buildings, respectively, while the high-rise buildings saw a reduction of 3.09–4.91 kWh/m2 for the non-insulated and 2.07–3.09 kWh/m2 for the insulated buildings. This study offers a potential remedy to deal with the problem of urban heating in subtropical environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground heat accumulation caused by imbalanced heating and cooling loads in a building can cause the heat-source temperature to increase as the operating age of a geothermal heat pump (GHP) system increases. An alternative system to improve upon this situation is the hybrid GHP system. This study reviews existing research on GHP systems and hybrid GHP systems, variable water flow (VWF) control, and coefficient of performance (COP) prediction. Generally, constant flow control is applied to the circulating pump to provide a flow rate according to the maximum load. The need for VWF control was identified because the hybrid GHP system is used mainly as a heating and cooling heat source system for partial loads rather than the entire building load. Previous studies on predicting the COPs of GHP systems developed prediction models by selecting input values based on mathematical models, collecting data through multiple measurement points, and utilizing data from production environments. The model can be limited by the field environment, and it is necessary to predict the COP using machine learning based on existing field monitoring data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As building systems account for almost half of the total energy consumed by the building sector to provide space heating, cooling, and ventilation, efficiently designing these systems can be the key to energy conservation in buildings. Dual VAV systems with an effective control strategy can substantially reduce the energy consumption in buildings, providing a significant scope of further research on this system configuration. This paper proposes to utilize the warm air duct of the dual VAV system as a dedicated outdoor air (DOA) unit when no heating is required, which allows the cooling load to be effectively distributed between two ducts. A specific control sequence is proposed with different supply air temperature reset strategies to estimate the heating, cooling loads, and fan power energy consumption of the proposed system. A simple two-zone office building is taken as a preliminary case study to simulate the airflow rates and fan power of a single duct VAV and proposed dual VAV systems to illustrate the concept. Finally, a larger multi-zone office building is simulated to measure the annual heating, cooling loads, and fan power energy and compare the energy savings among the systems. The results show significant fan power reduction ranging from 1.7 to 9% and notable heating energy reduction up to 76.5% with a small amount of cooling load reduction varying from 0.76 to 2.56% depending on the different locations for the proposed dual VAV systems. Further energy savings from different supply air temperature reset strategies demonstrate the opportunity of employing them according to climates and case studies. The proposed dual VAV system proves to have the potential to be adapted in buildings for the purpose of sustainability and energy savings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]