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Interventions targeting cognitive control processes, such as Executive Functions (EF) have recently been experimented to enhance early math skills. This pilot study explored the feasibility and effectiveness of an intervention integrating EF activities into the mathematical domain among second‐grade students. One hundred and four typically‐developing‐children were assigned to either a group that underwent the intervention (Trained Group; n = 58) or a group that continued with daily didactic activities (Control Group; n = 46). The training lasted for 8 weeks and included both home‐based digital and school‐based paper activities. According to teachers' feedback, the intervention was highly appreciated by children and compatible with classical school curricula. The Trained Group improved in behavioral self‐regulation, math abilities and problem‐solving in comparison to the Control Group. Notably, within the Trained Group, benefits of the training were higher in children with high working memory. This training offers a model to support math learning in primary school, considering inter‐individual differences in EF. Early mathematical skills can be enhanced through cognitive control processes, notably Executive Functions (EF). This study proposes an intervention that combines EF activities with mathematical and problem‐solving exercises. The evaluation by participating teachers indicates that the intervention was both feasible and integrated into the school curriculum. The results show that the Trained Group exhibited improvements in behavioral self‐regulation, mathematical skills and problem‐solving, surpassing the achievement of the Control Group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-regulation (SR) and executive control functions (EF) are broad theoretical concepts that subsume various cognitive abilities supporting the regulation of behavior, thoughts, and emotions. However, many of these concepts stem from different psychological disciplines relying on distinct methodologies, such as self-reports (common in SR research) and performance-based tasks (common in EF research). Despite the striking overlap between SR and EF on the theoretical level, recent evidence suggests that correlations between self-report measures and behavioral tasks can be difficult to observe. In our study, participants from a life-span sample (14-82 years) completed self-report measures and behavioral tasks, which were selected to include a variety of different facets of SR (e.g., sensation seeking, mindfulness, grit, or eating behavior) and EF (working memory, inhibition, shifting). Using this broad approach, we systematically investigated connections and overlap of different aspects of SR and EF to improve their conceptual understanding. By comparing network models of a youth, middle-aged, and older-aged group, we identified key variables that are well connected in the SR and EF construct space. In general, we found connections to be stronger within the clusters of SR and EF than between them. However, older adults demonstrated more connections between SR and EF than younger individuals, likely because of declining cognitive resources., (© 2022 The Authors. Developmental Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The aim of this study was to determine the correlation of intelligence quotient with spelling performance, executive functions and emotional intelligence and to analyse the profiles in executive functions presented by the participants and the differences at the level of intelligence quotient, spelling performance and emotional intelligence. The sample consisted of 125 Spanish primary school students (58 girls and 67 boys) in a rural environment, with a mean age of 10.92 (±.68) years. Intelligence quotient and spelling performance were measured using the BADyG test; executive functions were assessed using the NIH EXAMINER battery and emotional intelligence was assessed using the Bar-On questionnaire. The results show a high correlation of intelligence quotient with spelling performance, executive functions and two emotional intelligence dimensions (adaptability and interpersonal). Two clusters were observed: a high executive functions profile (n = 74, 59.7%), with high scores on all measured variables (working memory, planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and verbal fluency), and a low executive functions profile (n = 50, 40.3%) with low scores on all executive functions-related variables. The multivariate analysis of variance (MANCOVA) found variations between the different clusters in the intelligence quotient, spelling performance and interpersonal emotional intelligence variables, showing that students with a higher executive functions profile had a higher intelligence quotient, spelling performance and interpersonal emotional intelligence values. This study could help to better define what kind of teaching methodology favours the development of academic performance in schoolchildren and the connections between important educational aspects such as emotional intelligence and executive functions., (© 2023 The Authors. European Journal of Neuroscience published by Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The relationship between executive function and second-language ability remains contentious in bilingual children; thus, the current study focused on this issue. In total, 371 Uyghur-Chinese bilingual children ranging from 3 to 6 years old were assessed by a battery of tasks measuring language ability (expressive vocabulary tests, receptive vocabulary tests, and phonological awareness of both their first-language and second-language) and executive function (working memory, inhibition, and switching). Our results indicated that age is a crucial moderator of the relationship between second-language ability and executive function. Specifically, executive function unilaterally predicted second-language ability in children who were 3-4 years old, whereas second-language ability and executive function bilaterally influenced each other in children who were 4-5 and 5-6 years old. These findings suggest that executive function and second-language ability have an intertwined and causal relationship among preschool children during development. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: A counterfactual model showed causality between executive function and second language ability in Uyghur-Chinese bilingual children. Executive function unilaterally predicted second language ability in the 3- to 4-year-old age group. Executive function and second language ability bilaterally influenced each other in the 4- to 5 and 5- to 6-year-old age groups., (© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Children show marked improvements in executive functioning (EF) between 4 and 7 years of age. In many societies, this time period coincides with the start of formal school education, in which children are required to follow rules in a structured environment, drawing heavily on EF processes such as inhibitory control. This study aimed to investigate the longitudinal development of two aspects of inhibitory control, namely response inhibition and response monitoring and their neural correlates. Specifically, we examined how their longitudinal development may differ by schooling experience, and their potential significance in predicting academic outcomes. Longitudinal data were collected in two groups of children at their homes. At T1, all children were roughly 4.5 years of age and neither group had attended formal schooling. One year later at T2, one group (P1, n = 40) had completed one full year of schooling while the other group (KG, n = 40) had stayed in kindergarten. Behavioural and brain activation data (measured with functional near-infrared spectroscopy, fNIRS) in response to a Go/No-Go task and measures of academic achievement were collected. We found that P1 children, compared to KG children, showed a greater change over time in activation related to response monitoring in the bilateral frontal cortex. The change in left frontal activation difference showed a small positive association with math performance. Overall, the school environment is important in shaping the development of the brain functions underlying the monitoring of one own's performance., (© 2021 The Authors. Developmental Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Children's ability to discriminate nonsymbolic number (e.g., the number of items in a set) is a commonly studied predictor of later math skills. Number discrimination improves throughout development, but what drives this improvement is unclear. Competing theories suggest that it may be due to a sharpening numerical representation or an improved ability to pay attention to number and filter out non-numerical information. We investigate this issue by studying change in children's performance (N = 65) on a nonsymbolic number comparison task, where children decide which of two dot arrays has more dots, from the middle to the end of 1st grade (mean age at time 1 = 6.85 years old). In this task, visual properties of the dot arrays such as surface area are either congruent (the more numerous array has more surface area) or incongruent. Children rely more on executive functions during incongruent trials, so improvements in each congruency condition provide information about the underlying cognitive mechanisms. We found that accuracy rates increased similarly for both conditions, indicating a sharpening sense of numerical magnitude, not simply improved attention to the numerical task dimension. Symbolic number skills predicted change in congruent trials, but executive function did not predict change in either condition. No factor predicted change in math achievement. Together, these findings suggest that nonsymbolic number processing undergoes development related to existing symbolic number skills, development that appears not to be driving math gains during this period. Children's ability to discriminate nonsymbolic number improves throughout development. Competing theories suggest improvement due to sharpening magnitude representations or changes in attention and inhibition. The current study investigates change in nonsymbolic number comparison performance during first grade and whether symbolic number skills, math skills, or executive function predict change. Children's performance increased across visual control conditions (i.e., congruent or incongruent with number) suggesting an overall sharpening of number processing. Symbolic number skills predicted change in nonsymbolic number comparison performance., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Decreased punishment sensitivity in alcohol use disorder (AUD) might reflect a reduction in the typical human tendency to overweigh negative choice outcomes compared with equivalent positive ones, that is, 'loss aversion.' While this hypothesis is supported by previous reports of reduced loss aversion in AUD, it is still unknown whether such decreased sensitivity to prospective losses represents a specific facet of altered decision-making or a secondary effect of executive/working-memory impairments. We addressed this issue by assessing whether lower loss aversion in 22 AUD patients compared with 19 healthy controls is explained by their differential executive or working-memory performance and by investigating its neural basis in terms of grey matter density and cortical thickness via voxel- and surface-based morphometry, respectively. A significant decrease of loss aversion in patients, unrelated to their impaired executive/working-memory performance, reflected the reduction of posterior fronto-medial grey matter density and right frontopolar cortical thickness. Rather than their executive deficits, patients' reduced loss aversion reflects the structural damage of the posterior fronto-medial cortex previously associated with solving conflicts at the response level, where earlier functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have shown a 'neural loss aversion' pattern of steeper deactivation for losses than activation for gains, and of the frontopolar cortex in charge of managing competing goals. These findings highlight possible directions for addressing AUD patients' high relapse rate, for example, cognitive-behavioural rehabilitative interventions enhancing the awareness of the adverse outcomes of addiction or neurostimulation protocols targeting the regions processing their salience., (© 2021 Society for the Study of Addiction.)

Executive functions (EFs) enable us to control our attention and behavior in order to set and work toward goals. Strong EF skills are linked to better academic performance, and greater health, wealth, and happiness in later life. Research into EF development has been hampered by a lack of scalable measures suitable for infancy through to toddlerhood. The 31-item Early Executive Functions Questionnaire (EEFQ) complements temperament measures by targeting cognitive and regulatory capabilities. Exploratory Factor Analysis (n = 486 8- to 30-month-olds) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (n = 317 9- to 30-month-olds) indicate Inhibitory Control, Flexibility, and Working Memory items load onto a common "Cognitive Executive Function (CEF)" factor, while Regulation items do not. The CEF factor shows strong factorial measurement invariance for sex, and partial strong factorial measurement invariance for age. CEF and Regulation scores show limited floor and ceiling effects, good internal consistency, short-term stability, and convergent validity with carer-report measures of attentional control. The EEFQ is sensitive to developmental change. Results indicate that the widely overlooked period between late infancy and early toddlerhood may be a sensitive period for EF development. The low-resource demands of the EEFQ afford the possibility to study emergent EFs at scale; opening up new opportunities in basic developmental and intervention research., (© 2021 The Authors. Infancy published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Congress of Infant Studies.)

Background: Mindfulness practices enhance executive function skills and academic achievement, spurring interest in integrating mindfulness interventions into education. Embedding mindfulness practice into a digital math game may provide a low‐cost, scalable way to induce mindfulness and boost game‐based learning, yet this approach remains unexplored. Objectives: We investigated the learning benefits of integrating mindfulness exercises in a digital math learning game and examined how students' trait mindfulness might moderate the outcomes. Methods: Two classroom studies were conducted with 404 5th and 6th grade students from six public schools in the U.S. (nStudy 1 = 227, nStudy 2 = 177). The two randomized controlled experiments assigned students to one of the three conditions: passive control (playing the digital learning game Decimal Point), story‐enriched active control, or mindfulness‐enriched condition. Trait mindfulness, learning gains, and in‐game problem‐solving (including problem‐solving duration, error count and correctness after reminder) were assessed. Study 2 included a manipulation check to better understand the effects of the mindfulness intervention. Results: Findings showed no significant differences in learning gains, problem‐solving duration or error count among the conditions. Students' trait mindfulness did not moderate these outcomes. Mindfulness reminders in the mindfulness‐enriched game led to more correct answers after errors than jokes in the story‐enriched game. Study 2 revealed that we failed to induce higher state mindfulness through the mindfulness inductions. Conclusions: Mindfulness prompts could be especially beneficial for students experiencing frustration during gameplay, warranting more exploration for digital game‐based instruction. We highlight barriers and future directions for fostering mindfulness through computer‐based instruction in classrooms. Lay Description: What is currently known about this topic?: Researchers focus on digital games as productive learning environments for math, with potential for higher learning gains compared with traditional methods. However, results are mixed, and not all games lead to improved math outcomes.Executive function (EF) skills are crucial for math learning, and mindfulness‐based interventions show promise in enhancing EF skills in school‐aged students.Embedding mindfulness practice into a digital math game may provide a low‐cost, scalable way to induce mindfulness and, in turn, boost EF skills and game‐based learning, yet this approach remains unexplored What does this paper add?: This paper presents the results of two randomized control trials investigating the feasibility and benefits of incorporating mindfulness exercises into a digital math game designed for middle school students. Benefits are compared to those of a story‐enriched and regular version of the same digital math learning game.The paper also explores variations in the effects of the mindfulness‐enriched game based on students' initial trait mindfulness levels.We observe that listening to mindfulness inductions at the beginning of game sessions do not induce mindfulness, and therefore does not benefit math learning.We find that mindfulness prompts received after recurrent errors can be beneficial for students' problem solving. Implications of study findings for practitioners: Our study provides important information on how digital learning game designers should attempt to induce mindfulness in a digital game to promote learning.Digital learning game designers should consider incorporating mindfulness exercises into their games strategically. Presenting mindfulness inductions in audio format at the beginning of game sessions may not induce mindfulness or benefit math learning. Instead, designers should focus on integrating mindfulness prompts at moments when students encounter frustration within the learning game.Beyond embedding audio mindfulness exercises in the game, learning designers should also consider alternative technological and game features to induce mindfulness within a learning game. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scientific research on how children learn to tell lies has existed for more than a century. Earlier studies mainly focused on moral, social, and situational factors contributing to the development of lying. Researchers have only begun to explore the cognitive correlations of children's lying in the last two decades. Cognitive theories suggest that theory of mind (ToM) and executive function (EF) should be closely related to the development of lying since lying is, in essence, ToM and EF in action. Yet, findings from empirical studies are mixed. To address this issue, the current meta‐analysis reviewed all prior literature that examined the relations between children's lying and ToM and/or between children's lying and EF. In total, 47 papers consisting of 5099 participants between 2 and 19 years of age were included, which yielded 74 effect sizes for ToM and 94 effect sizes for EF. Statistically significant but relatively small effects were found between children's lying and ToM (r =.17) and between lying and EF (r =.13). Furthermore, EF's correlation with children's initial lies was significantly smaller than its correlation with children's ability to maintain lies. This comprehensive meta‐analysis provides a clear picture of the associations between children's ToM/EF and their lying behavior and confirms that ToM and EF indeed play a positive role in children's lying and its development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) remains one of the most prevalent psychiatric disorders worldwide with high economic costs. Current treatment options show modest efficacy and relapse rates are high. Furthermore, there are increases in the treatment gap and few new medications have been approved in the past 20 years. Recently, psychedelic‐assisted therapy with psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide has garnered significant attention in the treatment of AUD. Yet, they require significant amounts of therapist input due to prolonged subjective effects (~4–12 h) leading to high costs and impeding implementation. Accordingly, there is an increasing interest in the rapid and short‐acting psychedelic 5‐methoxy‐N,N‐dimethyltryptamine (5‐MeO‐DMT). This paper offers a first look at potential therapeutic mechanisms for AUD by reviewing the current literature on 5‐MeO‐DMT. Primarily, 5‐MeO‐DMT is able to induce mystical experiences and ego‐dissolution together with increases in psychological flexibility and mindfulness. This could decrease AUD symptoms through the alleviation of psychiatric mood‐related comorbidities consistent with the negative reinforcement and self‐medication paradigms. In addition, preliminary evidence indicates that 5‐MeO‐DMT modulates neural oscillations that might subserve ego‐dissolution (increases in gamma), psychological flexibility and mindfulness (increases in theta), and the reorganization of executive control networks (increases in coherence across frequencies) that could improve emotion regulation and inhibition. Finally, animal studies show that 5‐MeO‐DMT is characterized by neuroplasticity, anti‐inflammation, 5‐HT2A receptor agonism, and downregulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 with clinical implications for AUD and psychiatric mood‐related comorbidities. The paper concludes with several recommendations for future research to establish the purported therapeutic mechanisms of action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bilingualism is widespread and being bilingual is more common than being monolingual. The lifelong practice bilinguals receive from managing two languages seems to lead to a cognitive benefit. Conversely, bilingualism seems to affect language ability negatively due to less use of each known language. Aims: This systematic review aims to summarize the results of the studies on the effect of bilingualism on executive functioning assessed by verbal fluency tasks. The verbal fluency task is a neuropsychological measure of lexical retrieval efficiency and executive functioning. Methods: The review was conducted according to the PRISMA statement through searches in the scientific databases PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science and SCOPUS. Studies included in this review had at least one bilingual and monolingual group, participants over 18 years and one verbal fluency task. Studies that considered bimodal bilingual, second language learners, trilingual or multilingual people, and clinical populations were excluded. A total of 38 studies were included in the systematic review. Main Contribution: Quantitative analysis of performance did not show significant differences between monolinguals and bilinguals. Qualitative results are mixed, and no definitive conclusions can be drawn about a bilingual advantage or disadvantage in the verbal fluency tasks. Conclusions: Normative data based on the monolingual population are not appropriate to test a bilingual population. It is necessary to take precautions in using this task, especially in clinical practice. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject: Bilingualism seems to lead to a cognitive benefit due to constantly monitoring the known languages to select the most suitable one for each interactional context and to affect language ability negatively due to less use of each known language but also to language ability negatively. What this paper adds to the existing knowledge: This systematic review summarizes the results of the studies on the effect of bilingualism on executive functioning assessed by verbal fluency tasks, a neuropsychological measure of lexical retrieval efficiency and executive functioning. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?: Normative data based on the monolingual population are not appropriate to test a bilingual population. It is necessary to take precautions in using this task, especially in clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For many years, researchers studied executive functions (EFs) in the laboratory with a focus on understanding an individual child's development and brain processes in a controlled environment. Building on this foundational research, there is a growing interest in EFs in the context of a child's dynamic, social world, and the contextual and compositional factors influencing EF development. This paper provides a descriptive view of EFs in 1112 K-3 children from six schools in Phoenix, AZ, USA. The study's goals were to examine (1) variation in EF scores between and within schools and classrooms, (2) predictors of variation in children's spring EF scores, and (3) individual and compositional predictors of children's spring EF scores. Our findings indicate greater variation in children's EF within schools than between, with very little or no variation arising from differences between schools. Though we observed greater variation within classrooms than between them, a notable amount of variance in children's spring EF scores appears to arise from differences between classrooms. Classroom-level variables, including a fall leave-out classroom mean (without the students' own score) and the number of children in the top or bottom grade-level quartiles in each classroom, were significant predictors of variation in spring EF scores as well as in fall to spring changes in EF. In some cases, the classroom variables were stronger predictors than individual fall scores. Findings suggest that understanding variation and cultivating growth in EF skills requires intervention, measurement, and analytic approaches that extend beyond the individual to include compositional features of the classroom environment. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Variation in children's EF scores (n = 1112 children) was greater within schools (n = 6 schools) than between, with very little or no variance arising from differences between schools. While variance was greater within classrooms than between (n = 67 classrooms), a notable amount of variance in children's spring EF scores appears to arise from differences between classrooms. Classroom-level variables (e.g., leave-out mean, number of children in the top or bottom grade-level quartiles in each classroom) were significant predictors of variation and of changes in spring EF outcomes. In some cases, the classroom variables were stronger predictors of spring EF than individual fall scores., (© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

This paper reviews three studies investigating the relationship between brain regions involved in executive control and those involved in reading comprehension in typically‐developing teens. In the first study, three regions of posterior left lateral prefrontal cortex (i.e., precentral gyrus, inferior frontal junction, inferior frontal gyrus) were consistently activated across three task domains: reading comprehension, numerical estimation, and executive processes in working memory, suggesting these regions exert domain‐general executive control. In a second study, brain activity in the precentral gyrus during reading comprehension was found to be associated with individual differences in reading achievement. A subsequent investigation indicated that while all three prefrontal regions exhibit greater connectivity to the angular gyrus during reading comprehension compared to symbol identification, each also exhibits unique connectivity to distinct posterior regions implicated in reading processes. Hence, reading difficulties during adolescence may arise, in part, from difficulties in executive control over processing in language‐related brain regions. This review paper discusses research that examines the degree to which executive processes implemented by prefrontal brain regions are involved during reading comprehension. Three investigations are discussed: one focused on methods for clearly identifying such regions; a second examining the degree to which activation in these areas is associated with individual differences in reading proficiency, and third examining the functional connectivity of these regions with language‐related posterior brain regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review paper aims to define the involvement of Executive Functions (EF) in reading fluency in typically developing children and those with reading difficulties (RD)/dyslexia using neuroimaging and cognitive measurements. The data presented in this review demonstrate how training reading fluency with EF principles improved reading fluency and associated neural circuits. The possible mechanism for this fluency improvement points to the utilization of EF during reading remediation and its relation to the synchronization between the auditory and visual modalities in RD. Overall, the studies reviewed in the current paper suggest that reading fluency is achieved through a better synchronization of EF‐brain regions with sensory networks, which are linked to decreased neural noise. These results support embedding EF principles in reading training and point to the need to include the fluency component in the Simple View of Reading model and open up possible opportunities to improve reading in children. This review aims to define the involvement of Executive Functions (EF) in reading fluency among typical readers and children with reading difficulties (RD) using neuroimaging and cognitive measurements. It points to the possibility of utilizing EF‐based reading training to improve reading fluency and support embedding EF principles in reading training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies suggest that learners who are asked to predict the outcome of an event learn more than learners who are asked to evaluate it retrospectively or not at all. One possible explanation for this “prediction boost” is that it helps learners engage metacognitive reasoning skills that may not be spontaneously leveraged, especially for individuals with still‐developing executive functions. In this paper, we combined multiple analytic approaches to investigate the potential role of executive functions in elementary school‐aged children's science learning. We performed an experiment that investigates children's science learning during a water displacement task where a “prediction boost” had previously been observed—children either made an explicit prediction or evaluated an event post hoc (i.e., postdiction). We then considered the relation of executive function measures and learning, which were collected following the main experiment. Via mixed effects regression models, we found that stronger executive function skills (i.e., stronger inhibition and switching scores) were associated with higher accuracy in Postdiction but not in the Prediction Condition. Using a theory‐based Bayesian model, we simulated children's individual performance on the learning task (capturing “belief flexibility”), and compared this “flexibility” to the other measures to understand the relationship between belief revision, executive function, and prediction. Children in the Prediction Condition showed near‐ceiling “belief flexibility” scores, which were significantly higher than among children in the Postdiction Condition. We also found a significant correlation between children's executive function measures to our “belief flexibility” parameter, but only for children in the Postdiction Condition. These results indicate that when children provided responses post hoc, they may have required stronger executive function capacities to navigate the learning task. Additionally, these results suggest that the “prediction boost” in children's science learning could be explained by increased metacognitive flexibility in the belief revision process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychodynamic psychotherapy does not feature in current treatment guidelines for attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the United Kingdom. However, there is some psychoanalytic understanding of the disorder, which is corroborated in current neuroscientific theory, and supports clinicians in thinking beyond the behaviourally biased diagnosis and treatment models. One of the core features of ADHD is distortions in chronoception. This clinical paper therefore explores the psychoanalytic and neuroscientific theories of time perception as a way of exploring a discrete element of the complex idea of executive functioning more generally. It supports therapists approaching such executive dysfunction and to reconsider the treatment guidelines. A case example is used to explore how a transference‐, affect‐ and relationally‐focussed therapy can effect lasting change for people with ADHD in a way that behavioural and medication approaches do not. It is argued that such an intervention can improve oscillatory attention between subjective‐ and objective‐time and increase the capacity to self‐contain emotions. This brings patients into alignment with reality and restarts their psychic development towards themselves, others, the parental couple and grieving, which stalled in infancy. The internalised schema of the 50‐minute therapy session also provides a frame of reference for future tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to establish test–retest reliability and investigate practice effects of the Mindmore cognitive assessment tool, a digital adaptation of traditional pencil and paper tests designed for self‐administration. Additionally, normative change scores for the most frequently used tests were derived. A total of 149 healthy Swedish adults (aged 20–79) completed the test battery twice, 1 month apart. The battery assessed attention and processing speed, memory, language, visuospatial functions, and executive functions. Test–retest reliability, measured by ICC and Spearman coefficients, and practice effects were estimated for 22 main‐scores and 33 sub‐scores. Regression models were used to assess change in performance while controlling for demographics, computer equipment, testing location (online or in‐laboratory) and baseline performance for 12 main‐scores and nine sub‐scores. Test–retest reliability was good for 11 main‐scores (≥0.70), satisfactory for five (0.60–0.69), and minimal for six (<0.60) albeit three having satisfactory sub‐scores. Practice effects were observed for tests with a major speed component, but not for reaction time, sustained attention, verbal memory and naming (alternate forms), nor visuospatial functions. Trackpad negatively influenced change for one test. Demographics and testing location did not significantly affect the change scores. Our study provides support for test–retest reliability and practice effects of the Mindmore cognitive assessment tool which were comparable to those of traditional tests. These findings, together with the normative change scores, can aid researchers and clinicians in interpreting test results and distinguishing between normal variations in performance and changes indicative of clinical impairment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Immersive virtual reality (IVR) is a new technology that could motivate learners, but also could contain distracting elements that increase cognitive demands on learners. In contrast, learning with conventional media, such as a narrated slideshow could be less motivating, but also less distracting. Objectives: This experiment investigates: (1) in what situations executive function and working memory capacity play a role in learning in IVR and a slideshow lesson and (2) whether people learn science content better with IVR or with a narrated slideshow lesson. Method: Participants watched a lesson on ocean acidification either using a head‐mounted display IVR device or a pre‐recorded narrated slideshow lesson. A week later, they took a test on this material and completed tasks to assess executive function and working memory capacity. Results and Conclusion: On a post‐test, there was no difference between IVR and slideshow lessons, but there were differences in the role of executive function in learning with these two media. For students learning in IVR, executive function correlated significantly with post‐test scores, such that learners with stronger executive function did better on the posttest than those with weaker executive function, while for students learning with a slideshow lesson, executive function and working memory capacity did not correlate significantly with posttest scores. This research indicates that it is important to understand how a learner's attentional controls impact their understanding when using IVR for learning. Lay Description: What is already know about this topic: Immersive virtual reality increases demands on cognition for learners.Immersive virtual reality for learning has inconsistent effects in prior research.Executive function and working memory capacity are important components in processing material while learning. What this paper adds: Research focused on the role individual differences play in learning with technology.Using common cognitive assessments to understand the process of learning better. Implications for practice and/or policy: Executive function predicted test score for an immersive virtual reality lesson.Use of immersive technology needs to take into account executive function to reduce potential inequity in learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-quality communicative interactions between caregivers and children provide a foundation for children's social and cognitive skills. Although most studies examining these types of interactions focus on child language outcomes, this paper takes another tack. It examines whether communicative, dyadic interactions might also relate to child executive function (EF) skills and whether child language might mediate this relation. Using a subset of data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, dyadic interactions between 2-year-olds and their mothers were coded for three behaviors: symbol-infused joint engagement, routines and rituals, and fluency and connectedness. Child language was assessed at age 3 and three facets of EF (self-regulation, sustained attention, and verbal working memory) were assessed at age 4.5. Structural equation modeling showed that dyadic interaction related to later child sustained attention and verbal working memory, indirectly through child language and directly related with child self-regulation. This suggests that communicative interactions with caregivers that include both verbal and non-verbal elements relate to child EF, in part through child language. Our findings have implications for the role of caregiver interactions in the development of language and cognitive skills more broadly. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Using structural equation modeling, we examined how communicative interactions between caregivers and toddlers relate to preschool executive function skills Communicative interactions relate to later language which in turn relates to sustained attention and verbal working memory in preschool Communicative interactions relate directly to self-regulation in preschool Associations between communicative interactions, language, and executive function vary across facets of executive function and may not be unidirectional., (© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Over a century ago, William James assured us that everyone knows what attention is. A contemporary of James', Karl Groos countered: To the question, "What is Attention?" Despite Groos' gloom, as of December 1, 2022, a PubMed search reveals that since 1950, nearly 44,000 papers have been published with "attention" in the title. [Extracted from the article]

Introduction: Recent studies highlight the negative impact of social isolation and involvement in leisure activities on enhanced well‐being of individuals. However, there is dearth of evidence on relationship between social isolation and leisure activities on cognitive abilities and depression of older adults in the Indian context. The paper reports the impact of social isolation and leisure activities on cognitive functioning and depression of older adults. Methods: Data were collected from the Longitudinal Ageing Study of India (LASI), and 63,806 participants aged 45 years or above were considered for the study with adherence to the exclusion criteria. Multivariate analysis was carried out to analyse the group‐based differences. Results: Social isolation (F = 102.09, p < 0.01; η2 = 0.09) and leisure (F = 224.54, p < 0.01; η2 = 0.07) had a statistically significant impact on the cognition and depressive symptoms of participants. Socially isolated older adults with little involvement in leisure activities had the worst cognitive functioning (M = 32.76, SD = 4.41), whereas middle‐aged adults who were actively involved in leisure activities and experienced the least social isolation exhibited the best cognitive functioning (M = 32.76, SD = 4.41). However, leisure and age as independent factors did not have a significant impact on depression. Conclusion: Socially isolated participants, irrespective of age, and involvement in leisure activities exhibit poor cognitive functioning and are more likely to suffer from depression as compared to their counterparts. The findings of the study can be used to design intervention strategies aimed at reducing social isolation by incorporating leisure activities to ensure the optimal functioning of middle‐aged and older adults. Key points: Socially isolated older adults with least involvement in leisure activities reported the worst cognitive functioning.Socially isolated participants reported a positive association with depressive symptomatology.Both middle‐aged and older adults who engaged in leisure activities reported better cognitive functioning as compared to their counterparts who did not engage in any form of leisure activities.Leisure as an independent factor is not significantly associated with depressive symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The acquired immobility response during the "forced swim test (FST)" is not a rodent model of depression, but the test has some validity in predicting a compound's antidepressant potential. Nevertheless, 60% of the about 600 papers that were published annually the past 2 years label the rodent's immobility response as depression‐like behaviour, but the relative contribution per country is changing. When the Editors‐in‐Chief of 5 journals publishing most FST papers were asked for their point of view on labelling immobility as depression‐like behaviour and despair, they responded that they primarily rely on the reviewers regarding scientific merit of the submission. One Editor informs authors of the recent NIMH notice (https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice‐files/NOT‐MH‐19‐053.html) which encourages investigators to use animal models "for" addressing neurobiological questions rather than as model "of" specific mental disorders. The neurobiological questions raised by use of the FST fall in two categories. First, research on the role of endocrine and metabolic factors, with roots in the 1980s, and with focus on the bottom‐up action of glucocorticoids on circuits processing salient information, executive control and memory consolidation. Second, recent findings using novel technological and computational advances that have allowed great progress in charting top‐down control in the switch from active to passive coping with the inescapable stressor executed by neuronal ensembles of the medial prefrontal cortex via the peri‐aquaductal grey. It is expected that combining neural top‐down and endocrine bottom‐up approaches will provide new insights in the role of stress‐coping and adaptation in pathogenesis of mental disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Verbal fluency tasks are routinely used in clinical assessment and research studies of aphasia. People with aphasia produce fewer items in verbal fluency tasks. It remains unclear if their output is limited solely by their lexical difficulties and/or has a basis in their executive control abilities. Recent research has illustrated that detailed characterization of verbal fluency performance using temporal characteristics of words retrieved, clustering and switching, and pause durations, along with separate measures of executive control stands to inform our understanding of the lexical and cognitive underpinnings of verbal fluency in aphasia. Aims: To determine the locus of the verbal fluency difficulties in aphasia, we compared semantic and letter fluency trials between people with aphasia and healthy control participants using a wide range of variables to capture the performance between the two groups. The groups were also tested on separate measures of executive control to determine the relationship amongst these tasks and fluency performance. Methods & Procedures: Semantic (animal) and letter (F, A, S) fluency data for 60s trials were collected from 14 people with aphasia (PWA) and 24 healthy adult controls (HC). Variables, such as number of correct responses, clustering and switching analyses, were performed along with temporal measures of the retrieved words (response latencies) and pause durations. Participants performed executive control tasks to measure inhibitory control, mental‐set shifting and memory span. Outcomes & Results: Compared with HC, PWA produced fewer correct responses, showed greater difficulty with the letter fluency condition, were slower in getting started with the trials, showed slower retrieval times as noted in within‐ and between‐cluster pause durations, and switched less often. Despite these retrieval difficulties, PWA showed a similar decline in the rate of recall to HC, and had similar cluster size. Executive control measures correlated primarily with the letter fluency variables: mostly for PWA and in one instance for HC. Conclusions & Implications: Poorer performance for PWA is a combination of difficulties in both the lexical and executive components of the verbal fluency task. Our findings highlight the importance of detailed characterization of fluency performance in deciphering the underlying mechanism of retrieval difficulties in aphasia, and illustrate the importance of using letter fluency trials to tap into executive control processes. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject: PWA typically show impaired performance in verbal fluency tasks. It is debated whether this impaired performance is a result of their lexical difficulties or executive control difficulties, or a combination of both. This debate continues because previous studies have mostly used semantic fluency condition without including letter fluency condition; used a limited range of variables (e.g., number of correct responses); and not included separate executive control measures to explain the performance pattern in aphasia. This research addresses these outstanding issues to determine the specific contribution of lexical and executive control processes in verbal fluency in aphasia by including: both semantic and letter fluency conditions; a wide range of variables to identify the relative contribution of lexical and executive control mechanisms; and independent measures of executive control. What this paper adds to existing knowledge: Using the multidimensional analysis approach for verbal fluency performance from both semantic and letter fluency conditions, this is the first study to systematically demonstrate that PWA had difficulties in both lexical and executive control components of the task. At the individual level, PWA had greater difficulty on the letter fluency condition compared with semantic fluency. We observed significant correlations between the executive control measures and verbal fluency measures primarily for the letter fluency condition. This research makes a significant contribution to our understanding of lexical and executive control aspects in word production in aphasia. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?: From a clinical perspective, this research highlights the importance of using a full range of verbal fluency and executive control measures to tap into the lexical as well as executive control abilities of PWA, and also the utility of using letter fluency to tap into the executive control processes in PWA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Persons with Parkinson's disease (PD) frequently report word‐finding difficulties. Many of the established tests are, however, insufficient in detecting mild cases of such symptoms. Results from earlier research have suggested that controlled oral word association tests (COWATs) with high demands on cognitive processing resources could prove helpful in detecting the more subtle (language‐related) problems seen in neurological disorders such as PD. Aims: First, to examine whether persons with PD (PwPD) differ in performance on different types of COWATs compared with non‐brain‐damaged controls. Second, to investigate possible relationships between executive functions and the novel complex oral semantic fluency (COSEF) task performance scores in the PwPD group. Third, to investigate whether age, years of education, severity of motor symptoms and self‐perceived severity of word‐finding difficulties influenced the COSEF task results. Methods & Procedures: A total of 17 PwPD participated in the study. Their results were compared with a matched control group (n = 17) at both group and individual levels. One phonemic and two types of semantic COWATs were used. Correlations between the COSEF task and executive function results, age, education and severity of motor symptoms were analysed in the PwPD group. Outcomes & Results: The PwPD group had significantly lower scores on the COSEF task compared with the control group, but not on the other COWATs. A variation in the results was seen on an individual level. In the PwPD group, large significant correlations were seen between the COSEF task and verbally based tasks measuring working memory and cognitive flexibility. Both age and education, but neither self‐perceived severity of word‐finding difficulties nor motor symptoms, were correlated with the COSEF task result in the group of PwPD. Conclusions & Implications: The results are in line with the predictions that a relatively more cognitive demanding COWAT such as the COSEF task could prove valuable when assessing word‐finding difficulties in PD in research and clinical assessment. What this paper adds: What is already known on the subject: Varying degrees of word‐finding difficulties are a common symptom in PD and may affect everyday communication. Discreet word‐finding difficulties can be hard to detect with the established language assessment tools. What this paper adds to existing knowledge: This study adds insights into how PwPD perform on different types of COWATs compared with a control group. It also sheds light on the relationships between a novel, more cognitive complex COWAT and executive functions in PD. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?: More cognitively complex COWATs can contribute significantly to the assessment of discreet word‐finding difficulties, but it is important to include a thorough anamnesis regarding language and communication in PwPD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies have demonstrated significant associations between executive function (EF) and reading ability. Many of these studies have evaluated this association through composite EF skills. In this study, we evaluated the indirect effects of working memory (WM) and cognitive flexibility (CF) in the relation between kindergarten socioeconomic status (SES) and first‐grade reading achievement. Through a two‐period estimation of mediating effects, we also examined these same relationships within low‐achieving (LA) and typically developing (TD) readers. For these investigations, nationally representative data from the United States were utilised from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010–2011. Results revealed significant EF and SES differences between TD and LA readers. Additionally, WM mediated around 11% of the association between kindergarten SES and first‐grade reading achievement while CF mediated 2.6%. The comparison of results between LA and TD readers yielded differences in mediating effects. For LA readers, 15% of the association was mediated by WM, but for TD only, 7.8% was mediated. CF mediated a small amount in both groups. Both WM and CF mediate the relation between kindergarten SES and first‐grade reading achievement. These findings are important because they provide clear evidence that EF ability may partially account for achievement gaps in reading ability from kindergarten to first grade. Highlights: What is already known about this topicThere is an association between SES and reading ability.Prior studies have shown the mediating effect of composite EF skills between SES and reading ability on a variety of different age groups. What this paper addsThis paper extends work on SES, EF and reading by examining the mediating effect of specific EFs on LA and TD readers in a national representative study.This paper focuses on the transition from kindergarten to first grade and finds a mediating effect of EF on reading in the earliest grades. Implications for theory, policy or practiceThere is a relationship between SES, EF and reading. Certain readers may rely more on WM than other students. If WM ability is compromised, it could negatively impact reading development.Implications are that supporting and improving early EF could reduce the negative impacts of SES on reading ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cognitive and linguistic factors have been incorporated into models to explain reading comprehension beyond classical models of reading. This study explores the contribution of executive functions, mainly domain‐general and reading‐specific cognitive flexibility, in reading comprehension of science texts in monolingual Spanish speaking upper elementary students. Methods: A total of 275 Chilean students from fourth to sixth grade participated in this study. They were evaluated in working memory, inhibition, reading fluency, domain‐general and reading‐specific cognitive flexibility, academic vocabulary and science reading comprehension. Results: The results show that cognitive flexibility is a variable that explains performance in science reading comprehension across elementary grades. Furthermore, reading domain‐specific cognitive flexibility was found to be the variable that explains additional performance in science reading comprehension above inhibition, reading fluency, academic vocabulary and domain‐general cognitive flexibility in Grade 4 and Grade 5, but not in Grade 6. Conclusions: These results suggest the contribution of cognitive variables such as cognitive flexibility in explaining performance in reading comprehension of science texts. The need to develop cognitive tests specific to reading domain is also discussed. Highlights: What is already known about this topic Executive functions have been included in models to explain reading comprehension.It is well known that the structure of text, narrative or expository influences the cognitive processes necessary for comprehension.Cognitive flexibility is a variable associated with reading comprehension. What this paper adds Cognitive flexibility explains science text reading comprehension from fourth to sixth grade.Reading‐specific cognitive flexibility is associated with science text reading comprehension in fourth to fifth grade.Reading‐specific cognitive flexibility explains additional variance above domain‐general cognitive flexibility. Implications for theory, policy or practice Cognitive flexibility plays a relevant role in explaining reading comprehension of scientific texts.Models of reading comprehension should be adjusted to include variables like cognitive flexibility.It is necessary to study reading specific measures of executive function assessment over general domain measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Executive function (EF) plays a crucial role in children's reading. However, previous studies were based on offline products of reading comprehension. Online research is needed to reveal the core mechanisms underlying children's reading processing. By measuring children's working memory (WM) and cognitive flexibility (CF), we investigated whether individual differences in EF could modulate sentence processing and, if so, how they exert their roles. Methods: The present study manipulated semantic congruency and the association between crucial words in a sentence. We recruited 89 Chinese children aged 9–12 years and monitored their eye movement. Results: The study revealed distinct associations between reader‐ and text‐related characteristics, as evidenced by eye‐movement patterns during reading. A significant incongruency effect was observed in reading, underscoring the children's capacity to discern incongruent information. Children's WM and CF were found to modulate this process. Specifically, high‐WM children showed more effective integration of incongruent information when the textual context was closely related during the later‐stage processing. In contrast, low‐WM children faced more challenges with incongruent words. Additionally, CF was influential during the early processing period. High‐CF children exhibited longer early‐stage reading times for incongruent words in associated contexts. Conclusions: Individual differences in EF can modulate children's online sentence processing. However, different EF components may play different roles. Highlights: What is already known about this topicA positive association exists between children's EF and reading, which often relies on offline products of reading comprehension.In children's sentence processing, sentence congruency and word association are the text features that require specific attention.The few studies investigating whether individual differences in EF modulate the processing of sentence congruency and word association have almost exclusively involved adults. What this paper addsChildren exhibit longer reading times for incongruent words, highlighting the cognitive demand of incongruencies.WM plays a modulatory role during the later stages of sentence processing.CF influences children's reading during the early processing period. Implications for theory, policy or practiceEF is a crucial cognitive basis that supports children's reading processing.WM and CF can underlie learning differences, especially when the focus of reading instruction switches from 'learning to read' to 'reading to learn'.Reading interventions that support reading‐related WM and CF may be especially beneficial for children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: This study aimed to (1) quantify attention and executive functioning in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), (2) assess whether some children with DCD are more likely to show attention difficulties, and (3) characterize brain correlates of motor and attention deficits. Method: Fifty‐three children (36 with DCD and 17 without) aged 8 to 10 years underwent T1‐weighted and diffusion‐weighted magnetic resonance imaging, and standardized attention and motor assessments. Parents completed questionnaires of executive functioning and symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity. We assessed regional cortical thickness and surface area, and cerebellar, callosal, and primary motor tract structure. Results: Analyses of covariance and one‐sample t‐tests identified impaired attention, non‐motor processing speed, and executive functioning in children with DCD, yet partial Spearman's rank correlation coefficients revealed these were unrelated to one another or the type or severity of the motor deficit. Robust regression analyses revealed that cortical morphology in the posterior cingulate was associated with both gross motor skills and inattentive symptoms in children with DCD, while gross motor skills were also associated with left corticospinal tract (CST) morphology. Interpretation: Children with DCD may benefit from routine attention and hyperactivity assessments. Alterations in the posterior cingulate and CST may be linked to impaired forward modelling during movements in children with DCD. Overall, alterations in these regions may explain the high rate of non‐motor impairments in children with DCD. What this paper adds: Children with developmental coordination disorder have difficulties in attention, processing speed, and executive functioning.Non‐motor impairments were not interrelated or correlated with the type or severity of motor deficit.Posterior cingulate morphology was associated with gross motor skills and inattention.Gross motor skills were also associated with left corticospinal tract morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To examine the impact of clinical factors, cognitive deficits, and sleepiness on health‐related quality of life (HRQoL) among young people with craniopharyngioma. Method: Seventy‐eight patients (67% White; 41 males, 37 females; mean age 10y 8mo, SD 3y 11mo, range 6–20y) with craniopharyngioma were assessed for tumor extent and diabetes insipidus. All patients underwent overnight polysomnography and multiple sleep latency tests after surgical resection. Executive functioning was assessed using parent‐reported measures. Patients and their parents completed measures of HRQoL. None had a history of previous radiation therapy. Results: Path analysis was used to test hypothesized relations while controlling for demographic and disease characteristics. Analyses revealed poorer parent‐reported HRQoL among young people with greater executive functioning symptoms (estimate −0.83; p<0.001). Direct and indirect effects were found among diabetes insipidus, executive functioning, and parent‐reported HRQoL. Diabetes insipidus directly predicted greater global executive functioning impairment (estimate 5.15; p=0.04) and indirectly predicted lower HRQoL through executive functioning impairment (estimate −4.25; p=0.049). No significant effects were found between excessive daytime sleepiness, tumor hypothalamic involvement, diabetes insipidus, executive functioning, and patient‐reported HRQoL. Interpretation: These findings suggest that young people with craniopharyngioma presenting with diabetes insipidus may benefit from targeted neurocognitive and psychosocial screening to inform interventions. What this paper addsChildren with craniopharyngioma and executive functioning impairment are more likely to have poorer health‐related quality of life (HRQoL).Diabetes insipidus, a complication associated with surgery, predicted greater executive functioning impairment.Diabetes insipidus indirectly predicted lower parent‐reported HRQoL through executive functioning impairment. What this paper adds: Children with craniopharyngioma and executive functioning impairment are more likely to have poorer health‐related quality of life (HRQoL).Diabetes insipidus, a complication associated with surgery, predicted greater executive functioning impairment.Diabetes insipidus indirectly predicted lower parent‐reported HRQoL through executive functioning impairment. This article is commented on by Cheetham and Wood on page 895 of this issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The proliferation of screen‐free programmable robotics allows teachers to implement age‐appropriate integrated activities that can promote child learning and development. However, very scarce is known about the challenges of using programmable robots as a tool to empower children in minority communities. This mixed‐methods case study examined a Free Quality Kindergarten situated in a low‐income public housing estate in Hong Kong to explore the affordances and challenges of robot programming (RP) in early childhood education (ECE). Both quantitative and qualitative data were generated through videotaped observations, child assessments and teacher interviews to journey with the teaching team as they managed to implement the newly introduced RP curriculum. Child assessment evidence revealed that there was a statistically significant improvement in CT scores over 6 weeks of RP activities, while the pretest–posttest change of child self‐regulation scores was nonsignificant. Video analysis results further revealed that children's interaction level with the robot kit significantly predicted the change of self‐regulation over time. Qualitative results are presented to explicate the micro, meso and macro conditions that constrain the implementation of RP curriculum, including the following: (a) teachers' limited TPACK in RP education, (b) a disconnect between the RP curriculum and the school‐based curriculum, (c) limited resources and (d) the Confucian tradition and cultural barriers. These illustrate the intricacies involved in the implementation of RP education to empower marginalized children in under‐resourced ECE settings. This study will help bring systemic change to the ECE field by uncovering ecological difficulties in integrating new technologies to promote inclusiveness and sustainability for the future. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Screen‐free robot programming (RP) is beneficial for preschool children in terms of promoting their computational thinking (CT) and executive functioning.RP can be generally engaging for preschool children from a middle‐class background.What this paper adds The study is addressing the inclusiveness and sustainability according to the learning needs of kindergarten students, especially those from less privileged backgrounds.The story‐based approach to RP can cater to the learning needs and interests of children from a lower socio‐economic background, which is likely to enhance their CT skills.Children with a higher level of interaction with the robot kit benefited more from the RP activities in terms of self‐regulation skills.This study used multiple methods (ie, video analysis, teacher interview and child assessment) to reveal the effects of micro, meso and macro contexts on RP education in an under‐resourced Hong Kong kindergarten.Implications for practice and/or policy RP education should be cautiously prompted in diverse early childhood settings, especially the less privileged institutions, to enhance positive effects.Critical constraints on the use of programmable robots to empower marginalized children should be adequately addressed when trying to integrate RP into early childhood education.Teachers should receive training and continual support in RP‐related pedagogical strategies to facilitate and scaffold children's learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cerebral hemiatrophy is a rare neurological condition, usually resulting in severe and diffuse cognitive impairment. In this paper we present a 69‐year old woman with notable congenital hemiatrophy with strikingly preserved cognitive functions. Cognitive assessment indicated that although her executive functions were found impaired, the remaining cognitive domains were relatively unaffected. We argue that this unexpected cognitive profile may be explained by anomalous hemispheric lateralization, driven by neuroplasticity along the developmental course. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper used a nationally representative sample of children from the United States to examine the extent to which physical activity and sports participation may promote growth in children's executive functions (EFs), attention, and social self-control over time. Using data from the ECLS-K:2011 (N = 18,174), findings indicated that regular physical activity predicted growth in EFs and attention from 3rd to 4th grade (βs = 0.03-0.05) but not from kindergarten to 1st grade. After controlling for the frequency of physical activity, participation in group sports predicted increases in EFs, attention, and social self-control during both periods (βs = 0.02-0.04). Though modest in size, the findings suggest that encouraging children to engage in more frequent and more team-based activity will benefit the development of their EFs and related skills, and especially so for children in middle childhood., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The main purpose of this systematic review was to examine past literature focusing on the potential relationship between exercise (or physical activity or cardiorespiratory fitness [CRF]) and functional brain connectivity in healthy adults. Among the studies meeting this purpose, we also evaluated studies investigating whether, and how, functional connectivity may influence the exercise–cognition relationship. A systematic review was employed through several electronic databases (PsychInfo, PubMed, and Google Scholar) in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. The literature search identified 656 records, and a total of 12 studies met the inclusion criteria. Among these 12 studies, there were 4, 7, and 1 study, respectively, examining the relationship between exercise and frontal lobe connectivity, temporal lobe connectivity, and whole‐brain connectivity. Also, 7 studies examined the relationship between functional connectivity and cognitive performance across multiple brain regions as a function of exercise. Existing literature suggests that CRF, habitual physical activity, and varying intensities of acute exercise can strengthen functional connections among a wide variety of regions and subcortical structures of the human brain. These exercise‐induced functional connectivity changes within and between specific brain structures/networks supporting cognitive processing may improve various domains of cognitive function. Given these complex associations, a thorough understanding of how functional connectivity plays a mediating role in the exercise–cognition interaction is needed in future studies. This paper demonstrates the effect of exercise on cognition and how exercise‐induced changes in brain functional connectivity influence this effect. These findings have important implications on improving cognition and identifying mechanisms of the exercise‐cognition interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper used longitudinal data from five studies conducted in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Ethiopia, and Rwanda to examine the links between family stimulation and early childhood development outcomes (N = 4904; Mage = 51.5; 49% girls). Results from random‐effects and more conservative child‐fixed effects models indicate that across these studies, family stimulation, measured by caregivers' engagement in nine activities (e.g., reading, playing, singing), predicted increments in children's early numeracy, literacy, social‐emotional, motor, and executive function skills (standardized associations ranged from 0.05 to 0.11 SD). Study‐specific models showed variability in the estimates, with null associations in two out of the five studies. These findings indicate the need for additional research on culturally specific ways in which caregivers may support early development and highlight the importance of promoting family stimulation to catalyze positive developmental trajectories in global contexts. Research Highlights: Research on the links between family stimulation and early childhood development in low‐and‐middle‐income countries (LMICs) is limited.We used longitudinal data from studies conducted in five LMICs to examine the links between family stimulation and early childhood development outcomes.Results suggest that family stimulation predicted increments in children's numeracy, literacy, social‐emotional, motor, and executive function skills.We found variability in the observed estimates, with null associations in two out of the five studies, suggesting the need for additional research in LMICs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This special issue of Mind, Brain, and Education includes articles on the role of executive functions (EFs) in academic skills and learning disabilities, a commentary on the construct of EF and the neurobiology of reading, and a commentary on connecting research to practice. These products are the result of a weeklong TDF (The Dyslexia Foundation) conference in Bermuda, during the summer of 2022. Each paper in the second half of this issue considers EFs from a different perspective or relates them to a different academic skill or outcome (e.g., reading, math, response to intervention). In this commentary, I discuss how consideration of EFs improves our understanding of individual differences in academic skills and learning disabilities, such as reading disability (RD) and math disability (MD). I also discuss the implications of the reported findings and ideas for improving future research, practice, and policy. Executive functions (EFs) are a set of cognitive processes such as planning, reasoning, problem solving, self‐regulation and goal directed behavior, which support academic learning. In this commentary I introduce a set of articles that consider the role of EFs in a variety of academic domains and in learning disabilities. I also discuss the implications of the reported findings and ideas for improving future research, practice and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite decades of prior research, the mechanisms of skilled reading development remain elusive. Numerous studies have identified word recognition and oral language ability as key components to explain later reading comprehension performance. However, these components alone do not fully explain differences in reading achievement. There is ongoing work exploring other cognitive processes important for reading, such as the set of skills encompassed in the domain‐general concept of executive function (EF). Here, we summarize our work on the behavioral and neurobiological connections between EF and reading and present preliminary neuroimaging findings from ongoing work. Together, these studies suggest (1) that EF plays a supportive and perhaps indirect role in reading achievement and (2) that EF‐related brain regions interface with the reading and language networks. While further work is needed to dissect the specifics of how EF interacts with reading, these studies begin to reveal the complex role that EF plays in reading development. Many students struggle when learning to read. Our understanding of how and why reading development goes amiss is incomplete. In this paper, we recap past and present findings about how an important cognitive skill, executive function (EF), is related to reading achievement. We outline brain and behavioral findings and discuss how EF shapes typical and atypical reading development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two potential pathways for improving reading outcomes for students with reading disabilities are presented: (a) systematically integrating self‐regulation instructional practices within reading interventions and (b) aligning small‐group reading intervention with core reading instruction to reduce the pressure on the executive system. Two separate studies conducted with fourth grade students with significant reading difficulties, one related to integrating self‐regulation within a reading intervention and one related to aligning core instruction and reading intervention, are presented. Similar to many past high‐quality studies conducted with older students with reading disabilities, results revealed no statistically significant differences on commercially developed measures of reading comprehension. However, results on standardized measures of word reading and text reading fluency and researcher‐developed measures of vocabulary and text comprehension underscore the promise of these approaches and support the notion that considering self‐regulation in the context of reading instruction may be a productive conduit for supporting the needs of students with significant reading difficulties. Improving reading comprehension among students with reading difficulties can have a profound impact on their success in school and in the workforce. This paper describes two approaches we developed. The first approach sought to support self‐regulatory behaviors within a reading intervention to maximize learning. The second aspired to reduce the pressure on children's executive functioning during reading instruction by using the same practices across instructional settings. Results underscore the promise of these approaches and the need for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Early intervention for psychosis has been of high interest in the past two decades. Research demonstrates that clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR‐p) populations experience impairments in role functioning. Although several vocational and cognitive interventions exist for people living with psychosis, there are no known evidence‐based treatments for role functioning difficulties during the CHR‐p stage. There is clear evidence for a need for interventions that directly target role functioning. Methods: This paper describes the theoretical development and implementation of a novel intervention targeting role functioning impairments: Individualized Vocational and Educational Support and Training (InVEST). The CEDAR Clinic, a specialized CHR‐p coordinated specialty care (CSC) team, has worked to develop InVEST to target core aspects of role functioning, namely executive functioning, stress sensitivity, and task initiation. The intervention is cost‐efficient, as bachelor level clinicians provide the service under supervision of licensed clinicians. This summary describes InVEST, provides a disguised case example, and presents initial exploratory data (N = 135) focused on the intervention's feasibility in this CSC program. Results: Although these preliminary data are limited, available information suggests that InVEST may provide a core treatment modality within CHR‐p treatment programs. Conclusions: More research formally investigating InVEST with a larger sample would provide further evidence of the intervention's efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The conversational speech of most children can be understood by people outside the family by the time they reach 4 years. However, for some children, speech sound disorders (SSDs) persist into their early school years, and beyond, despite adequate hearing, oromotor function, and language learning opportunities. One explanation for children's SSDs are domain‐general cognitive‐linguistic deficits that impair the child's ability to correctly derive rules governing how speech sounds legally combine to form words in a specific language. Aims: To explore whether there are differences in performance on executive function tasks between children who make speech errors characteristic of phonological delay and those who make speech errors characteristic of phonological disorder. Methods & Procedures: Twenty‐six children aged from 3;6 to 5;2 (13 with phonological delay and 13 with phonological disorder), matched pairwise for age and sex (nine males), were assessed on tasks measuring cognitive flexibility (rule abstraction and cognitive shift) and phonological working memory. Outcome & Results: For the cognitive flexibility tasks, the performance of children with phonological delay was significantly better than that for children with phonological disorder, but there were no group differences for the phonological working memory task. Conclusions & Implications: Children with phonological disorders might benefit from intervention programmes that incorporate training in cognitive flexibility. What is already known on the subject: Children with phonological delay and phonological disorder comprise the two largest SSD subgroups that present to speech‐language therapy clinics. Evidence suggests domain‐general cognitive processes (e.g., phonological working memory, ability to revise faulty underlying representations, rule abstraction, and cognitive shift) influence phonological development. Differences between the two subgroups in the types of speech errors, linguistic abilities, developmental trajectories, and responses to intervention have been reported, yet little is known about the underlying cognitive‐linguistic deficits. What this paper adds to existing knowledge: The results of this study suggest that children with phonological delay and phonological disorder have distinct patterns of performance on executive function tasks: Children with phonological disorder showed deficits in domain general rule‐abstraction and cognitive shift when compared to children with phonological delay. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?: The findings draw attention to: (1) the importance of differential diagnosis of phonological delay and phonological disorder; (2) the role of domain‐general cognitive processes in explaining why children make particular types of errors; and (3) the need to develop innovative and tailored intervention techniques that target specific underlying deficits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There is a clear predominance of programmes aimed at improving aspects related to language production in pupils with developmental language disorder (DLD). However, programmes aimed at improving their receptive skills are limited. Aims: The main aim was to assess the effectiveness of an intervention programme for oral language comprehension skills in preschoolers with typical development (TD) and pupils with DLD. Methods & Procedures: Participants were 99 five‐year‐old pupils, with and without DLD, divided into four groups: two control groups (TD‐C = 25; DLD‐C = 25) and two experimental groups (TD‐T = 24; DLD‐T = 25), from schools on the Spanish island of Tenerife. The study used, as pre‐ and post‐measures, the receptive language subtests of the CELF‐4‐Spanish: Concepts and Following Directions, Word Classes—Receptive and Sentence Structure, as well as two tasks assessing comprehension of paragraphs and narratives. Due to the strong link between oral comprehension skills and executive functions, working memory and semantic fluency are included in this research. The Backward Digit Span subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC‐IV) and Semantic Fluency subtest of the Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT) were used to assess working memory and semantic fluency, respectively. The intervention programme followed a multitiered system of support (MTSS) model, with 95 sessions lasting 60 min each delivered jointly by teachers and speech and language therapists, and focused on lexical–semantic, morphological, syntactic and narrative skills; inferences; verbal working memory; and semantic fluency. Outcomes & Results: The results showed, as expected, that pupils diagnosed with DLD initially performed worse on oral language comprehension and executive functions than pupils with TD. Further, the DLD‐T and TD‐T groups showed greater gains following the programme, especially in word classes—receptive, sentence structure, verbal working memory and semantic fluency. Finally, a significant positive correlation was found between the gains obtained by the participants in verbal working memory and semantic fluency, with the gains obtained in the three CELF‐4‐Spanish subtests. Conclusions & Implications: An intervention programme applied at an early age fosters oral language comprehension skills and executive functions in pupils with DLD and TD. The intervention organized at different levels of support, following an MTSS model, showed clear progress of the DLD and TD groups in oral language comprehension and executive functions. What this paper adds: Pupils with DLD present deficits in linguistic comprehension and executive functions. There are many intervention programs focused on improving language production skills. It is also necessary to consider the skills underlying language problems in pupils with DLD. Oral language, inference, working memory and semantic fluency activities improve comprehension. A collaborative and inclusive intervention of teachers and speech language therapists. Psycholinguistic and neuropsychological skills training should become part of the academic curriculum as early as preschool age. What is already known on the subject: Pupils with DLD show problems related to both comprehension and production language. However, there is a clear predominance of programs just aimed at improving aspects related to language production. Clinical implications of this study: An intervention program applied at an early age fosters oral language comprehension skills and executive function in pupils with DLD. The intervention organized at different levels of support, following an adaptation of the Response Tier Intervention models, showed clear progress of the DLD in comprehension oral language and executive functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision‐making competence is a skill that is associated with numerous positive life outcomes. Even though multiple cognitive abilities have been shown to predict decision‐making competence, few studies have incorporated a large test battery tapping into several cognitive abilities concurrently in the same models. The current paper presents a study that sought to investigate which cognitive abilities predicted overall decision‐making competence in adults using hierarchical regression analysis. A cognitive test battery, comprising abilities such as general intelligence, executive functions, numeracy, visuospatial ability, and time perception, was administered to 182 participants. Results indicate that both general intelligence, which was consistently the strongest predictor, and numeracy contributed independently to overall decision‐making competence. Executive functions did predict overall decision‐making competence, while all predictors were included in the models. A novel finding concerns the relationship between time perception and decision‐making competence. The complementary roles of these cognitive abilities are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides insights from our recent RCTs of CR for people with mood disorders and discusses the challenges of synthesising CR studies that examine multimodal predictors. In both bipolar disorder (BD) and major depressive disorder (MDD), evidence for efficacy and effectiveness of cognitive remediation (CR) interventions is preliminary, with relatively few randomised controlled trials (RCT) in small samples. [Extracted from the article]

Objective: The increase in smartphone usage has enabled the possibility of more accessible ways to conduct neuropsychological evaluations. The objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of using smartphone typing dynamics with mood scores to supplement cognitive assessment through trail making tests. Methods: Using a custom‐built keyboard, naturalistic keypress dynamics were unobtrusively recorded in individuals with bipolar disorder (n = 11) and nonbipolar controls (n = 8) on an Android smartphone. Keypresses were matched to digital trail making tests part B (dTMT‐B) administered daily in two periods and weekly mood assessments. Following comparison of dTMT‐Bs to the pencil‐and‐paper equivalent, longitudinal mixed‐effects models were used to analyze daily dTMT‐B performance as a function of typing and mood. Results: Comparison of the first dTMT‐B to paper TMT‐B showed adequate reliability (intraclass correlations = 0.74). In our model, we observed that participants who typed slower took longer to complete dTMT‐B (b = 0.189, p <.001). This trend was also seen in individual fluctuations in typing speed and dTMT‐B performance (b = 0.032, p =.004). Moreover, participants who were more depressed completed the dTMT‐B slower than less depressed participants (b = 0.189, p <.001). A practice effect was observed for the dTMT‐Bs. Conclusion: Typing speed in combination with depression scores has the potential to infer aspects of cognition (visual attention, processing speed, and task switching) in people's natural environment to complement formal in‐person neuropsychological assessments that commonly include the trail making test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This special issue of Mind, Brain & Education focuses on the relationship between executive functions (EF) and reading. It includes research papers and commentaries from neuroscience and educational contexts. The issue was the result of a research symposium sponsored by The Dyslexia Foundation, which aimed to explore the connection between EF and reading development and disorders. The papers in this issue address various aspects of EF, including its role in academic performance, its neurobiological origins, and its intersection with environmental factors. The goal of this issue is to enhance the understanding of EF and its implications for reading instruction and intervention, particularly for students with reading disorders. [Extracted from the article]

Aims/Introduction: This study aimed to characterize the global cognition and executive functions of older adults with type 1 diabetes mellitus in comparison with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Materials and Methods: This study included 37 patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus aged ≥65 years and 37 age‐ and sex‐matched patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Patients with dementia scoring <24 on the Mini‐Mental State Examination were excluded. General cognition, memory, classic, and practical executive function were investigated. Results: Patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus demonstrated lower psychomotor speed scores on Trail Making Tests A and B (P < 0.001, P < 0.013) than those with type 2 diabetes mellitus. The dysexecutive syndrome behavioral assessment revealed similar results in patients with types 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus. The Wechsler Memory Scale‐Revised verbal episodic memory and Montreal Cognitive Assessment Japanese version were similar in terms of general cognition, but worse delayed recall subset on the latter was associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (P = 0.038). A worse Trail Making Test‐A performance was associated with type 1 diabetes mellitus and age (P < 0.004, P < 0.029). Conclusions: Executive function of psychomotor speed was worse in older outpatient adults without dementia with type 1 diabetes mellitus than in those with type 2 diabetes mellitus but with no significant differences in the comprehensive and practical behavioral assessment of dysexecutive syndrome. Patients with type 1 diabetes had more severely impaired executive function, whereas those with type 2 had greater impaired memory than executive function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document provides practical advice and insights for field ecologists, addressing various challenges and skills needed for successful fieldwork. It discusses the unique challenges faced by transgender and gender-nonconforming ecologists, as well as the hazards scientists may encounter in the field. The article also explores the challenges faced by ecologists with attention deficit disorder (ADD) and offers coping strategies. Additionally, it highlights the importance of resourcefulness, teamwork, and respectful collaboration with local communities during fieldwork. The document also provides recommendations for graduate students and advisors on managing and leading fieldwork, emphasizing compassionate communication and setting clear expectations. It concludes by acknowledging that the advice provided aims to minimize barriers to accessible field research. [Extracted from the article]

Parkinson's disease (PD) patients exhibit deficits in primary sensorimotor and higher‐order executive functions. The gradient reflects the functional spectrum in sensorimotor‐associated areas of the brain. We aimed to determine whether the gradient is disrupted in PD patients and how this disruption is associated with treatment outcome. Seventy‐six patients (mean age, 59.2 ± 12.4 years [standard deviation], 44 women) and 34 controls participants (mean age, 58.1 ± 10.0 years [standard deviation], 19 women) were evaluated. We explored functional and structural gradients in PD patients and control participants. Patients were followed during 2 weeks of multidisciplinary intensive rehabilitation therapy (MIRT). The Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale Part III (UPDRS‐III) was administered to patients before and after treatment. We investigated PD‐related alterations in the principal functional and structural gradients. We further used a support vector machine (SVM) and correlation analysis to assess the classification ability and treatment outcomes related to PD gradient alterations, respectively. The gradients showed significant differences between patients and control participants, mainly in somatosensory and visual networks involved in primary function, and higher‐level association networks (dorsal attentional network (DAN) and default mode network (DMN)) related to motor control and execution. On the basis of the combined functional and structural gradient features of these networks, the SVM achieved an accuracy of 91.2% in discriminating patients from control participants. Treatment reduced the gradient difference. The altered gradient exhibited a significant correlation with motor improvement and was mainly distributed across the visual network, DAN and DMN. This study revealed damage to gradients in the brain characterized by sensorimotor and executive control deficits in PD patients. The application of gradient features to neurological disorders could lead to the development of potential diagnostic and treatment markers for PD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Binge eating is a relatively common disordered eating behavior among children, and is associated with poor health outcomes. Executive function (EF)—higher order cognitive abilities related to planning and impulse control—may be implicated in both binge eating and pediatric obesity. Although EF deficits are evident among individuals with obesity and/or binge eating, findings are mixed across the lifespan. Methods: The present study examined differences in EF among children with varying weight statuses and parent‐reported binge eating. The sample included 10,017 children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study, aged 9–10 years. Results: Children with parent‐reported binge eating—either with overweight/obesity or normal weight—had significantly lower EF than those with no binge eating and a normal weight status but did not differ from those with no binge eating and overweight/obesity. Children with no binge eating and overweight/obesity also had statistically significantly lower EF than those with normal weight status. Although all significant differences between groups were negligible to very small, results may indicate similar neurocognitive profiles among children with binge eating and those with overweight/obesity. Conclusions: Alterations in EF among children with binge eating may not be solely related to weight‐specific factors, as significant differences also emerged among children with normal weight status, with versus without parent‐reported binge eating. Future research is needed to understand temporal associations between obesity, disordered eating, and neurocognition in children using multi‐informant methods for assessing binge eating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) has been extensively studied in relation to various cognitive abilities, including executive function, attention, and memory. Nevertheless, there is a gap in our scientific knowledge regarding the functionally dissociable neural dynamics across the PFC during a cognitive task and their individual differences in performance. Here, we explored this possibility using a delayed match‐to‐sample (DMTS) working memory (WM) task using NIRSIT, a high‐density, wireless, wearable functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) system. First, upon presentation of the sample stimulus, we observed an immediate signal increase in the ventral (orbitofrontal) region of the anterior PFC, followed by activity in the dorsolateral PFC. After the DMTS test stimulus appeared, the orbitofrontal cortex activated once again, while the rest of the PFC showed overall disengagement. Individuals with higher accuracy showed earlier and sustained activation of the PFC across the trial. Furthermore, higher network efficiency and functional connectivity in the PFC were correlated with individual WM performance. Our study sheds new light on the dynamics of PFC subregional activity during a cognitive task and its potential applicability in explaining individual differences in experimental, educational, or clinical populations. Practitioner Points: Wearable functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) captured dissociable temporal dynamics across prefrontal subregions during a delayed match‐to‐sample task.Anterior regions of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) activated first during the delay period, followed by the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC).PFC disengaged overall after the delay, but the OFC reactivated to the test stimulus.Earlier and sustained activation of PFC was associated with better accuracy.Functional connectivity and network efficiency also varied with task performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]