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Weather and climate extremes such as heat waves, droughts and floods are projected to become more frequent and intense in several regions. There is compelling evidence indicating that changes in climate and its extremes over time influence the living conditions of society and the surrounding environment across the globe. This study applies max-stable models to capture the spatio–temporal extremes with dependence. The objective was to analyse the risk of drought caused by extremely high temperatures and deficient rainfall. Hopkin's statistic was used to assess the clustering tendency before using the agglomerative method of hierarchical clustering to cluster the study area into n = 3 temperature clusters and n = 3 precipitation clusters. For the precipitation and temperature data, the values of Hopkin's statistic were 0.7317 and 0.8446, respectively, which shows that both are significantly clusterable. Various max-stable process models were then fitted to each cluster of each variable, and the Schlather model with several covariance functions was found to be a good fit on both datasets compared to the Smith model with the Gaussian covariance function. The modelling approach presented in this paper could be useful to hydrologists, meteorologists and climatologists, including decision-makers in the agricultural sector, in enhancing their understanding of the behaviour of drought caused by extremely high temperatures and low rainfall. The modelling of these compound extremes could also assist in assessing the impact of climate change. It can be seen from this study that the size, including the topography of the location (cluster/region), provides important information about the strength of the extremal dependence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to global climate change, droughts are likely to become more frequent and more severe in many regions such as in South Africa. In Limpopo, observed high climate variability and projected future climate change will likely increase future maize production risks. This paper evaluates drought patterns in Limpopo at two representative sites. We studied how drought patterns are projected to change under future climatic conditions as an important step in identifying adaptation measures (e.g., breeding maize ideotypes resilient to future conditions). Thirty-year time horizons were analyzed, considering three emission scenarios and five global climate models. We applied the WOFOST crop model to simulate maize crop growth and yield formation over South Africa's summer season. We considered three different crop emergence dates. Drought indices indicated that mainly in the scenario SSP5-8.5 (2051–2080), Univen and Syferkuil will experience worsened drought conditions (DC) in the future. Maize yield tends to decline and future changes in the emergence date seem to impact yield significantly. A possible alternative is to delay sowing date to November or December to reduce the potential yield losses. The grain filling period tends to decrease in the future, and a decrease in the duration of the growth cycle is very likely. Combinations of changed sowing time with more drought tolerant maize cultivars having a longer post-anthesis phase will likely reduce the potential negative impact of climate change on maize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farmers are aware of challenges brought by climate change yet struggle with adaptation measures due to a lack of resources such as early warning systems, ecosystem restoration, climate-resilient infrastructure, and water supply. This study, undertaken to assess smallholder crop farmers' awareness of, and adaptation to, the impacts of climate change, was conducted in the three local municipalities of Mopani district in the Limpopo Province, South Africa: Giyani, Letaba and Maruleng. The proportionate sampling technique was used to obtain the study sample size of 291 farmers. A Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 28 was used to analyze data, along with descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. The results indicated that 100% of smallholder crop farmers were aware of climate change but struggled to implement adaptation measures. The binary logistic regression results revealed that the variables gender, farm size and change of weather had a significant influence on farmers' adaptation measures. Ninety per cent of smallholder crop farmers were aware of, and implemented, climate change adaptation measures. The study recommends a heightened focus on improving the level of farmers' efforts to adapt, to mitigate the effects of climate change in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, southern Africa has experienced a shift towards hotter and drier climate conditions, affecting vital sectors like agriculture, health, water, and energy. Scientific research has shown that the combination of high temperatures and unreliable rainfall can have detrimental effects on agricultural production. Thus, this study focused on assessing climate variability, with implications on rangelands in the Limpopo Province of South Africa over 38 years. Historical climate data from 15 stations, including rainfall and minimum and maximum temperatures from 1980 to 2018, were analysed. To achieve the main objective, various statistics including mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation (CV) were computed for all variables across four seasons. The results highlighted significant variability in rainfall, with Musina (71.2%) and Tshiombo (88.3%) stations displaying the highest variability during the September-to-April season. Both minimum and maximum temperatures displayed low variability. The Mann–Kendall test revealed both increasing and decreasing trends in minimum temperatures and rainfall across different stations. Notably, there was a significant increase in maximum temperatures. This study provides valuable climate information for decision makers, aiding in the planning and management of agricultural activities, particularly in understanding how climate variations affect forage availability in rangelands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study measures the vulnerability of households to food insecurity by measuring the risk or threat posed by climate change. This is conducted using multilevel or hierarchal regression, an extension of the "Three Stage Least Squares" model. Unlike the standard ordinary least squares regression model, this model can produce estimates of different hierarchal levels and produce unbiased reliable standard errors. With a sample size of 18,444 households nested within nine provinces, the findings show that climate change is a reality in South Africa, and it poses serious threats that expose households to future food consumption inadequacies. This study also offers a deeper understanding of the different sources of vulnerability among these households. Poverty or structural-induced vulnerability emerged as the main source of vulnerability for South African households. Climate change-induced vulnerabilities were also found to be prevalent and detrimental in rural areas with Limpopo and Eastern Cape being the most vulnerable provinces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study documented adaptation strategies employed by rural women in Vhembe district as they reel with climate change impacts. Women are heavily plagued by climate change impacts than any other genders worldwide. This is attributed to their high dependence on the natural resources for survival, low adaptive capacity, illiteracy, social ascribed roles that limit their participation in climate change initiatives like men and high poverty levels. Despite the daunting fact of women's vulnerability to climate change and its vagary impacts, women are agents of social change who have not remained passive victims to climate change and its impacts. Design/methodology/approach: This study adopted a qualitative methodology guided by multi-case study design. A sample of 25 participants was selected through simple random and purposive sampling techniques. Data were collected using Focus Group Discussions and individual interviews and analysed thematically. Rural women and traditional leaders served as key informants and participated in the study. Findings: The study established that the effects of climate change on rural women are real; however, there is a cocktail of strategies employed by women in Vhembe district in response to these effects. The strategies include livelihood and crop diversification, use of indigenous knowledge systems and harnessing of social capital among other household-based adaptation strategies. Originality/value: The study recommends that the best way of assisting rural women in adapting to climate change is through the amelioration of poverty, enhancing capacity building for women and elimination of all systems that serve as barriers to effective adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While much has been written about the instrumental roles of Intergovernmental Relations (IGR) in the promotion of co-operative government between the national, provincial and local spheres of government in South Africa, limited attention has been paid to the intergovernmental management of environmental changes between provincial governments and municipalities in the local sphere of government. As a result, critical linkages, challenges and opportunities, as well as synergies between the two spheres, often go unnoticed. Focusing on the nexus between provincial and local governments, and using the case study of Limpopo Province, this study enquires on the role of the Limpopo Provincial Government in assisting municipalities cope with climate change-related effects in Limpopo Province. Although challenges relating to human resource capacities remain a thorn in the provincial-local relations in managing climate change risks and effects, the consulted municipalities (Greater Letaba and Polokwane) have acknowledged the support role the Limpopo Provincial Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism (LEDET) continues to play as a responsible provincial department in the local space. Apart from this, assisting municipalities cope with climate change effects transcends rhetoric and requires more than a provincial intervention. In this regard, this study concludes that the question of human inertia, amongst others, could be resolved through an established national curriculum embedded in the education system of Technical Vocational Education and Training Colleges and some traditional universities. This way, skills crises could be resolved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated the demographic characteristics of smallholder livestock farmers in Limpopo and Mpumalanga Province of South Africa and their effect on the capacity of the farmers to adapt to climate change and variability. Respondents were mainly heads (58.7%) and parents (25.7%) to heads of households and were mostly male (63.4%) with good health (97.8%) associated with high adaptive capacity to climate change and variability. Regarding socio-economic status, four in five (81.5%) of the livestock farmers had only secondary education at most, and incomes were generally low, probably associated with low capacity to adapt to climate change and variability. On the contrary, the quality of housing for the livestock farmers was either top (48.5% of farmers) or medium (47.4%). Some 45.9% of farmers owned 4 to 5 rooms, 44.5% owned six or more rooms, with 88.5% of them having financed their houses. Almost all the respondents (97.3%) had access to electricity, and these suggest the high capacity to adapt to climate change and variability. With regards to aspects of livestock farming, one male (40.1% of households) and female (39.3%) member was fit to work in farming, livestock was owned by heads (52.9% of the households) and by children (29.0%), affirming the high capacity to adapt to climate change and variability. Almost all respondents (99.2%) used communal land, had fewer livestock, lacked training (99.5%), never belonged to a farmers' union (99.7%) or a producer organization (100.0%), and had no access to financial support from the government (99.2%) associated with low adaptive capacity. The findings of the study revealed that demographic factors had different influences on the capacity of smallholder livestock farmers to adapt to adverse effects of climate change and variability on the farming enterprises. This was true for all the three types of demographic factors studied, namely: personal characteristics, economic status, and aspects of livestock farming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study was carried out to investigate the level of awareness, knowledge and information of small-holder farmers (SHLF) on the impact of climatic change (CC) and extremes on livestock production in Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces. At least 366 small-holder farmers were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to elicit responses on vulnerability. Almost all the farmers (96 %) have heard about CC only a few farmers (4 %) did not know CC. The medium for the conveyance of CC information was the main radio (94.32%). Newspapers and television were also efficient mediums in the conveyance of this information, each with the outreach of 16.76 and 32.67%, respectively. Central to the impact of CC was the fact that (90%) of the farmers confirmed that there was a change in grass availability; which contributed to major livestock fatalities of which over half of the farmers (55.19%) attested as the cause. The study found that 86.67% of SHLF who attended awareness meetings indicated that the discussions prioritized adapting to CC. However, SHLF (80.77%) did not have an early warning system. This was coupled with a lack of contingency plans by (84.36%) the farmers to deal with the impact of the said drought on their farms. SHLF (19%) who had facilitated contingency plans indicated that improved aspects of the plan should incorporate the support of their provision feeds, drilling of boreholes, and erection of dams. Based on SHLF perceptions there is a need for strategic shifts from grazing to small scale feed-lots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined gaps in climate information within public agricultural extension in Limpopo Province, South Africa. It assessed extension officers' climate change perceptions, knowledge and climate education. Lastly, the study examined the extension approaches for overall suitability of climate information disseminated to rural smallholder farmers. The results indicated that participants were predominately male, with tertiary education. Education levels had an influence on exposure to climate education and extension approaches in disseminating agricultural information to farmers. There is a need to retool extension officers in climate change extension work, integrating indigenous knowledge to increase suitability and acceptability of information by smallholder farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women as key food producers in a subsistence economy have developed knowledge to process and preserve surplus crops to ensure sustainable provision of food. This study explored the indigenous food processing and preservation practices adopted by women to ensure household quality food availability and accessibility. The main goal was to describe the methods of processing and preserving subsistence food crops produced in the home gardens for future consumption. Focus group discussions were conducted with 250 women aged between 35 and 78. The study results showed that women, as food providers for their families, produce subsistence crops for consumption. Surplus crops were processed for sustainable provision of staple food in the form of porridge, vegetables and side dishes in the seasons of low food productivity. Sun-drying, hanging on roof and the use of Aloe Ferox plant's ash were the indigenous food preservation methods used to conserve the crops and vegetables to enhance quality food availability and access to the households in periods of food scarcity. The indigenous preservation practices presented in the study could be used to inform policy on adaptation to climate change impacts on food security in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluated climate change awareness and adaptation strategies among female farmers in the Lephalale municipal area in the Limpopo province of South Africa. A concurrent mixed method research approach was undertaken. Qualitative data were obtained through five focus group discussions and a semi-structured questionnaire was used to obtain quantitative data from 208 female farmers. The chi-square test of independence analysis showed that the climate change awareness level and the adaptation measures were significantly related to the educational level and geographic location of the female farmers. Moreover, 84% of the respondents considered the national government social grant as a major means of income and not farming. Although 53% of the respondents were not aware of the term 'climate change', the female farmers confirmed having observed variance in temperature and rainfall over the years which they regarded as natural phenomena. Inadequate knowledge of climate change and limited access to credit facilities affected the respondents' capacity to adapt to climate change. The study concluded that climate change awareness level among female farmers influences their adaptation measures against climate change. The study recommends the promotion of farmer-to-farmer extension and intensification of extension services in the study area to enhance the level of awareness of climate change through physical interaction with the farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adoption of climate-smart irrigation technologies amongst smallholder farmers generally remains low beside their role in combating food and nutrition security in a society and in climate change adaptation strategies. This study identified the factors influencing smallholder farmers' decision to adopt Climate Smart Irrigation Technologies (CSIT) in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Data were collected through the completion of a face-to-face structured questionnaire by 100 smallholder farmers selected through convenience and purposive sampling. A probit regression and OLS model were used to identify factors that influence the smallholder farmer's decision to adopt CSIT and the level of adoption. The results indicated that only 46% of the smallholder farmers adopted climate-smart irrigation technologies and suggested that adoption is influenced positively by factors such as gender, age, district, farm size, staple food production and knowledge on CSIT. There is an urgent need for related stakeholders to transform the smallholder farmer subsector through improved extension services, training, adopting resilient crop varieties, promoting underutilized and nutrient-dense crops adapted to harsh local conditions, and other interventions. This should be done by promoting awareness to smallholder farmers regarding these interventions and new technologies that have the potential to improve rural livelihoods and enhance resilience and adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]