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Purpose: To compare power output and pacing between maximal 1500- and 2000-m on-water rowing performances. Methods: Twenty-six (female n = 4, male n = 22) international rowers, across 6 boat classes, completed maximal 1500- and 2000-m on-water races, separated by 24 to 48 hours. Crew combinations and seat orders remained consistent between races. Peach PowerLine instrumentation measured power output and stroke rate. Differences in completion time, mean power output (MPO), percentage prognostic velocity (PPV; percentage of world record velocity in each boat class), stroke rate, and pacing variance were assessed using linear mixed modeling. Results: Compared with 2000-m, completion times were 90.4 (6.1) seconds shorter over 1500 m (−24.7% [0.7%]). Both MPO (P =.255, η p 2 =.06) and PPV (P =.340, η p 2 =.18) were not different between distances. Broadly, crews adopted a reverse-J-shaped pacing across both distances, demonstrating a reduced variance over 1500 m (P =.035, η p 2 =.62). Percentage change in MPO from 2000 to 1500 m demonstrated a strong negative association with pacing variance over 1500 m (R2 =.74, P =.027). Conclusions: International rowing crews did not increase MPO or PPV when racing maximally over 1500 m compared to 2000 m. Comparable strategies were adopted over both distances, with less variance in pacing observed over 1500 m. The crews that demonstrated greater increases in MPO over the shorter race employed a flatter pacing strategy. To improve 1500-m on-water performance, rowers may need to adopt a more even pacing approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To compare the energetic contribution and pacing in 2000- and 1500-m maximal rowing-ergometer performances. Methods: On separate visits (>48 h apart, random order), 18 trained junior (16.7 [0.4] y) male rowers completed 3 trials: a 7 × 4-minute graded exercise test, a 2000-m time trial (TT2000), and a 1500-m TT (TT1500). Respiratory gases were continuously measured throughout each trial. The submaximal power-to-oxygen-consumption relationship from the graded exercise test was used to determine the accumulated oxygen deficit for each TT. Differences in mean power output (MPO), relative anaerobic contribution, percentage of peak oxygen uptake, pacing index, maximum heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and blood lactate concentration were assessed using linear mixed modeling. Results: Compared to TT2000 (324 [24] W), MPO was 5.2% (3.3%) higher in TT1500 (341 [29 W]; P <.001, η p 2 =.70). There was a 4.9% (3.3%) increase (P <.001, η p 2 =.71) in anaerobic contribution from 17.3% (3.3%) (TT2000) to 22.2% (4.3%) (TT1500). Compared to TT1500, maximum heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and blood lactate concentration were all greater (P <.05) in TT2000. The pacing index was not different between trials. Percentage increase in MPO from TT2000 to TT1500 was negatively associated with pacing variance in TT1500 (R2 =.269, P =.027). Conclusions: Maximal ergometer performance over 1500 m requires a significantly greater anaerobic contribution compared with 2000 m. Junior male athletes adopt a consistent pacing strategy across both distances. However, those who experienced greater percentage increases in MPO over the shorter test adopted a more even pacing strategy. To prepare for 1500-m performance, greater emphasis should be placed on developing capacity for work in the severe domain and completing race simulations with a more even pacing strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strong relationships exist between sprint cycling torque and isometric mid‐thigh pull (IMTP) force production at one timepoint; however, the relationships between the changes in these measures following a training period are not well understood. Accordingly, this study examined the relationships in the changes of sprint cycling torque and IMTP force following six‐weeks of sprint cycling and resistance training performed by strength‐trained novice cyclists (n = 14). Cycling power, cadence, torque and IMTP force (Peak force [PF]/torque, average and peak rate of force/torque development [RFD/RTD], and RFD/RTD from 0 to 100 ms and 0–200 ms) were assessed before and after training. Training consisted of three resistance and three sprint cycling sessions per week. Training resulted in improvements in IMTP PF (13.1%) and RFD measures (23.7%–32.5%), cycling absolute (10.7%) and relative (10.5%) peak power, peak torque (11.7%) and RTD measures (27.9%–56.7%). Strong‐to‐very strong relationships were observed between cycling torque and IMTP force measures pre‐ (r = 0.57–0.84; p < 0.05) and post‐training (r = 0.63–0.87; p < 0.05), but no relationship (p > 0.05) existed between training‐induced changes in cycling torque and IMTP force. Divergent training‐induced changes in sprint cycling torque and IMTP force indicate that these measures assess distinct neuromuscular attributes. Training‐induced changes in IMTP force are not indicative of training‐induced changes in sprint cycling torque. Highlights: Six weeks of resistance and sprint cycling training resulted in improvements in isometric mid‐thigh pull (IMTP) peak force (13.1%) and rate of force development measures (23.7%–32.5%), cycling absolute (10.7%) and relative (10.5%) peak power, peak torque (11.7%), and rate of torque development measures (27.9%–56.7%) in strength‐trained novice cyclists.No significant relationships were observed between the training‐induced changes in IMTP force measures and sprint cycling torque measures following training.No significant relationships were observed between the training‐induced changes in cycling peak power and changes in cycling torque, IMTP force, back squat and trap bar deadlift with three repetition maximum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Performance tracking devices in the form of wrist-worn watches are common in rowing; however, the accuracy of relevant output variables (i.e. stroke rate [SR] and velocity) during on-water training is unknown. To assess the quality of wrist-watch data output, 16 rowing athletes recorded 118 on-water rowing sessions using a Garmin Forerunner 735XT, which was compared to a Catapult Optimeye R4 tracking device. Garmin recording function was set to 'Every Second' (N = 68 sessions) or 'Smart' (N = 50 sessions). Catapult velocity was calculated as the average velocity per stroke, while a 15 s velocity moving average was determined for Garmin data. Catapult and Garmin were filtered for training-specific data (SR = 14–50 strokes per minute [spm]; velocity = 2.1–7.0 m/s−1). Efficacy and reliability of the Garmin was assessed via the difference between devices (% error), intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC ± 95% confidence interval (CI)) and coefficient of variation (CV%). Error in 15 s smoothed velocity was 3.8% ('Every Second') and 8.2% ('Smart'). Both recording functions demonstrated 'good' reliability (ICC = 0.75–0.9, CV < 10%) for SR and velocity; the exception was SR using 'Smart' recording. Our data suggests that when using the 'Every Second' recording function, data is filtered and velocity is smoothed over 15 s, the Garmin device can be reliable for SR and velocity measurement within 1 spm and <0.20 m/s−1 respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: World Rowing's decision to support the proposed change from a 2000-m to a 1500-m regatta course at the 2028 Olympic Games in Los Angeles is anticipated to have important implications for athlete preparation and race execution during the 2024–2028 quadrennium. Purpose: This commentary aims to provide insight into the expected implications of the reduction in course length heading into the 2028 Games, focusing on the training and monitoring of high-performance rowers, as well as tactical, technical, and pacing considerations for performance. The reduction in event duration (estimated to be ∼90–120 s across all event classes) will lead to an expected ∼5% to 15% increase in relative contribution of anaerobic metabolism. Consequently, adjustment in training periodization priorities toward higher-intensity interventions may be required, especially in the period immediately prior to the games. The critical-power and anaerobic-power-reserve concepts may become more useful tools for structuring exercise programs, evaluating training outcomes, and determining event suitability through individual physiological profiling. Additionally, the adoption of a more constant (flat) pacing strategy, rather than the commonly used reverse J-shaped approach, might be considered for racing over this new distance. Finally, technical aspects, such as stroke rate and gearing, may require adjustment for optimal performance; however, research is clearly required to explore such effects. Conclusions: Our intention is to stimulate discussion and debate, with the provision of practical recommendations that aim to optimize rowers' preparation for and performance at the 2028 Olympic Games. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to investigate acute performance and physiological responses to the manipulation of exercise-to-rest ratio (E:R) during repeated-sprint hypoxic training (RSH) in hot conditions. Twelve male team-sport players completed two experimental sessions at a simulated altitude of ∼3000 m (FIO2 0.144), air temperature of 40°C and relative humidity of 50%. Exercise involved either 3 × 5 × 10-s (E:R1:2) or 3 × 10 × 5-s (E:R1:4) maximal cycling sprints interspersed with active recoveries at 120W (20-s between sprints, 2.5 and 5-min between sets for E:R1:2 and E:R1:4 respectively). Sessions were matched for overall sprint and total session duration (47.5-min). Peak and mean power output, and total work were greater in E:R1:4 than E:R1:2 (p < 0.05). Peak core temperature was significantly higher in E:R1:4 than E:R1:2 (38.44 ± 0.33 vs. 38.20 ± 0.35°C, p = 0.028). Muscle deoxygenation magnitude during sprints was greater in E:R1:2 (28.2 ± 1.6 vs. 22.4 ± 4.6%, p < 0.001), while muscle reoxygenation did not differ between conditions (p > 0.05). These results indicate E:R1:4 increased mechanical power output and core temperature compared to E:R1:2. Both protocols had different effects on measures of muscle oxygenation, with E:R1:2 generating greater muscle oxygen extraction and E:R1:4 producing more muscle oxygenation flux, which are both important signals for peripheral adaptation. We conclude that the E:R manipulation during RSH in the heat might be used to target different physiological and performance outcomes, with these findings forming a strong base for future mechanistic investigation. Highlights During a typical repeated-sprint training session conducted in hot and hypoxic conditions, an exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:4 during sprint efforts displayed an increased mechanical power output compared to an exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:2. This represents a potentially useful increase in training stimulus. An exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:2 generated greater muscle oxygen extraction, while an exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:4 resulted in more muscle oxygenation flux and a higher core temperature, indicating key markers of environment-related physiological strain were varied between conditions. Exercise-to-rest ratio manipulation may be used to target different physiological and performance outcomes when prescribing repeated-sprint training in hot and hypoxic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined (i) the magnitude of the rate of torque development (RTD) and (ii) the between-day reliability of RTD at the start of a cycling sprint when sprint resistance, sprint duration, and the pedal downstroke were altered. Nineteen well-trained cyclists completed one familiarisation and three testing sessions. Each session involved one set of 1-s sprints and one set of 5-s sprints. Each set contained one moderate (0.3 N m kg−1), one heavy (0.6 N m kg−1), and one very heavy (1.0 N m kg−1) resistance sprint. RTD measures (average and peak RTD, RTD 0–100 ms, and RTD 0–200 ms) were calculated for downstroke 1 in the 1-s sprint. For the 5-s sprints, RTD measures were calculated for each of the first three downstrokes, as an average of downstrokes 1 and 2, and as an average of downstrokes 2 and 3. Whilst RTDs were greatest in downstroke 3 at all resistances, the greatest number of reliable RTD measures were obtained using the average of downstrokes 2 and 3 with heavy or very heavy resistances, where average and peak RTD, and RTD 0–200 ms were deemed reliable (ICC ≥ 0.8, CV ≤ 10%). Since only 1–2 downstrokes can be completed within 1 s, the greatest RTD reliability cannot be achieved using a 1-s sprint; therefore, the average of downstrokes 2 and 3 during a >2-s cycling sprint (e.g. 5-s test) with heavy or very heavy resistance is recommended for the assessment of RTD in sprint cyclists. Highlights Whilst RTD measures were greatest in pedal downstroke 3 at all resistances, the greatest number of reliable RTD measures were obtained using the average of pedal downstrokes 2 and 3 with heavy or very heavy resistances, with average and peak RTD, and RTD 0–200 ms having acceptable reliability. RTD 0–100 ms and all RTD measurements for downstroke 1 were not reliable and should not be used. As only 1–2 downstrokes can be performed in 1 s, the greatest RTD reliability cannot be achieved using a 1-s sprint. Instead, RTD may be evaluated using a 5-s sprint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aims to investigate the acute performance and physiological responses, with specific reference to muscle oxygenation, to ambient air temperature manipulation during repeated-sprint training in hypoxia (RSH). Thirteen male team-sport players completed one familiarisation and three experimental sessions at a simulated altitude of ∼3000 m (FIO2 0.144). Air temperatures utilised across the three experimental sessions were: 20°C, 35°C and 40°C (all 50% relative humidity). Participants performed 3 × 5 × 10-s maximal cycle sprints, with 20-s passive recovery between sprints, and 5 min active recovery between sets. There were no differences between conditions for cycling peak power, mean power, and total work (p>0.05). Peak core temperature (Tc) was not different between conditions (38.11 ± 0.36°C). Vastus lateralis muscle deoxygenation during exercise and reoxygenation during recovery was of greater magnitude in 35°C and 40°C than 20°C (p<0.001 for all). There was no condition × time interaction for Tc, skin temperature, pulse oxygen saturation, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion and thermal sensation (P>0.05). Exercise-induced increases in blood lactate concentration were higher in 35°C and 40°C than 20°C (p=0.010 and p=0.001, respectively). Integrating ambient temperatures up to 40°C into a typical RSH session had no detrimental effect on performance. Additionally, the augmented muscle oxygenation changes experienced during exercise and recovery in temperatures ≥35°C may indicate that the potency of RSH training is increased with additional heat. However, alterations to the training session may be required to generate a sufficient rise in Tc for heat training purposes. Highlights Heat exposure (35-40°C) did not affect mechanical performance during a typical RSH session. This indicates hot ambient temperature can be implemented during RSH, without negative consequence to training output. Hotter ambient conditions (35-40°C) likely result in greater muscle oxygenation changes during both exercise and recovery compared to temperate conditions. Although hotter sessions were perceived as more difficult and more thermally challenging, they did not further elevate Tc beyond that of temperate conditions. Accordingly, if intended to be used for heat acclimation purposes, alterations to the session may be required to increase heat load. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantification of external training load for sprint kayak athletes can be challenging due to the influence of the water flow on boat velocity in a flowing river environment. Therefore, this study examined the utility of novel measures of power output (PO) and its relationship to measures of relative boat speed when training on a flowing river. Twelve (8 males, 4 female) well-trained sprint kayak athletes completed 4 separate on-water sessions comprising one time-trial session (2 × 1000-m maximal efforts) and three repeated sprint kayak training sessions (5 x split 1000-m [2 × 500-m up and down the river] submaximal efforts) in their individual (K1) kayak. For each session, a Kayak Power Meter recorded athletes' PO, and a SpeedCoach device recorded relative land-speed via a Global Positioning System (GPS) (SGPS), and relative water-speed via an impeller mounted under the boat hull (SIMP). Non-linear least squares regression were used to evaluate the curvilinear relationship between PO and speed (SGPS and SIMP) data. The exponents of velocity in the PO-SIMP relationship (2.87 females, 2.94 males) were closer to theoretical values (3.00) and showed greater model accuracy (root mean squared error (RMSE) = 20–26 W) than the PO-SGPS relationships (speed exponents = 1.58–2.02, RMSE = 31–40 W). Overall, PO measures could better account for the influence of water flow compared to traditional SGPS measures, and therefore, may be more suitable for quantifying athletes' external load in their training environment. Highlights Since traditional SGPS and time-to-completion measures do not adjust for the water flow, these measures appear limited for prescribing and monitoring sprint kayak training within flowing river environments. The prescription of paddling PO across a wide spectrum of relative PO values elicited similar internal and external athlete responses, regardless of the direction travelled on a flowing river (i.e. upstream or downstream). The relationship between PO and SIMP during on-water sprint kayaking appears similar to those observed in rowing, where every percent change in boat speed measured relative to water (SIMP) requires a 2.87 and 2.94-fold percent change in paddling PO in female and male sprint kayak athletes, respectively. Continued evaluation of the PO-speed relationship for individual athletes may provide further insight into modelling performance and training targets for sprint kayak athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tapsell, LC, Binnie, MJ, Lay, BS, Dawson, BT, and Goods, PSR. Validity and reliability of a field hockey-specific dribbling speed test. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1720–1725, 2022—The present study aimed to design a valid and reliable test for field hockey players that concurrently assesses the skill of dribbling and sport-specific agility. In total, 27 male and 32 female subjects were recruited from amateur (n = 20), state-level (n = 22), and national-level (n = 17) field hockey teams. The test course was developed in consultation with state- and national-level field hockey coaches, and using match analyses from existing literature. Subjects were familiarized before completing a testing session that consisted of 3 maximal-effort trials through a field hockey-specific course while dribbling a hockey ball, and another 3 trials of the same course without dribbling the ball. Amateur and state subjects completed an additional session for test-retest reliability analysis. Electronic timing gates recorded time to complete the course with the ball (DRIBBLE), without the ball (SPRINT), and the difference between DRIBBLE and SPRINT (DELTA). With significance set at p < 0.05, subjects of higher playing levels recorded significantly faster DRIBBLE (p < 0.001) and significantly lower DELTA (p < 0.001) times. No significant difference was found between player levels for SPRINT (p = 0.484) times. Intraclass correlations were 0.84 and 0.81 for DELTA and DRIBBLE, respectively. In conclusion, the dribbling test trialed here has sufficient validity and reliability for use in performance testing of field hockey athletes and can be implemented across playing levels to objectively track skill progression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study utilised on-water graded exercise tests (GXT) to determine the power output (PO) corresponding to the first and second lactate thresholds (LT1PO and LT2PO), subsequently examining their relationship to the mean maximal power (MMP) and race time achieved across three on-water sprint kayak time-trials. Twelve well-trained sprint kayak athletes completed an on-water GXT and a 200-, 500- and 1000-m time-trial utilising novel instrumented paddle technology. Stepwise multiple regression was used to determine whether equations incorporating 200-, 500- and 1000-m MMP data could be used as an alternative method for estimating LT1PO and LT2PO. On-water GXT derived LT1PO and LT2PO were 151 ± 34 and 194 ± 39 W, respectively. For the 200-, 500- and 1000-m time-trials, MMP were 528 ± 143, 358 ± 92 and 287 ± 67 W, respectively. Athletes' LT1PO and LT2PO had very-large inverse relationships to 200-, 500- and 1000-m time-to-completion (r = −.71 to −.85, P ≤.010) and very-large, to near-perfect positive relationships to 200-, 500- and 1000-m MMP (r =.81 to.94, P ≤.001). The equation incorporating 1000-m MMP alone provided the best prediction of LT1PO and LT2PO, explaining 78% and 88% of the variance, and yielding a standard error of estimate (SEE) of 11.3% and 7.1% for these measures, respectively. The results of this study provide further evidence to support the ecological validity of recently developed on-water GXTs graded by PO, since LT1PO and LT2PO were significantly correlated to 200-, 500- and 1000-m performance. Practitioners could also predict LT2PO with reasonable accuracy based solely from a 1000-m time-trial; potentially providing an alternative, non-invasive, competition-specific protocol for threshold determination. Highlights The fact that LT1PO and LT2PO had very-large, to near-perfect positive relationships to 200-, 500- and 1000-m MMP suggests that coaches should consider these relative submaximal aerobic-fitness variables when evaluating the performance of sprint kayak athletes, regardless of their race specialty. While the SEE and 95% limits of agreement (95%LoA) values for the prediction of LT1PO may be too large to be practically meaningful, measures of LT2PO could be predicted with a reasonable level of accuracy based upon 1000-m MMP. The ability to inform athletes' LT2PO from a single 1000-m time-trial is advantageous since it would provide a more feasible, and time-efficient testing protocol within the athletes' training schedule compared to GXTs, potentially allowing coaches and practitioners to monitor changes in LT2PO, and subsequently review individual training zones, more regularly. Given that LT1PO and LT2PO derived from on-water GXTs had very-large, to nearly perfect relationships to 200-, 500- and 1000-m performance, practitioners may prefer to use on-water, rather than laboratory-based GXTs given their greater practical significance and ecological validity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Snyder, L, Goods, PSR, Peeling, P, Balloch, A, Peiffer, JJ, Binnie, MJ, and Scott, BR. Contribution of physical characteristics to game performance in male wheelchair basketball athletes at the Tokyo Paralympic Games. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-This investigation explored the physical characteristics of elite male wheelchair basketball (WCB) athletes and their association with game performance during the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games. Sixteen male athletes from the Australian national WCB squad were assessed for anthropometrics, speed, change of direction, aerobic power, and upper-body power during a training camp before the 2020 Paralympic Games. Athletes were grouped according to the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation disability classification system (1.0-4.5) as low- (≤2.5, more severe impairments) or high-point (≥3.0, less severe impairments) athletes. Physical and performance characteristics between groups were compared using independent-samples t-tests, and their relationship to game statistics (points, rebounds, assists, and steals) per minute played was explored through stepwise regression. High-point athletes were 13% taller (p = 0.001), 4-9% faster (p < 0.001-0.017), and demonstrated superior change of direction ability (15%, p < 0.001) compared with low-point athletes. Approximately 74% of the variance in points scored per minute was accounted for by athlete classification, whereas the most important modifiable physical characteristic was speed, which contributed significantly to steals (54% of variance) and assists (96% of variance when arm span and sitting reach height were also considered). Low-point athletes with spinal cord injuries generally have impaired trunk control, which is a likely explanation for performance differences between groups. A range of nonmodifiable (classification, sitting reach height, and arm span) and modifiable (speed) physical characteristics contribute to game performance outcomes and should therefore be considered when identifying, developing, and selecting WCB athletes for elite competition., (Copyright © 2024 National Strength and Conditioning Association.)

Background: World Rowing's decision to support the proposed change from a 2000-m to a 1500-m regatta course at the 2028 Olympic Games in Los Angeles is anticipated to have important implications for athlete preparation and race execution during the 2024-2028 quadrennium., Purpose: This commentary aims to provide insight into the expected implications of the reduction in course length heading into the 2028 Games, focusing on the training and monitoring of high-performance rowers, as well as tactical, technical, and pacing considerations for performance. The reduction in event duration (estimated to be ∼90-120 s across all event classes) will lead to an expected ∼5% to 15% increase in relative contribution of anaerobic metabolism. Consequently, adjustment in training periodization priorities toward higher-intensity interventions may be required, especially in the period immediately prior to the games. The critical-power and anaerobic-power-reserve concepts may become more useful tools for structuring exercise programs, evaluating training outcomes, and determining event suitability through individual physiological profiling. Additionally, the adoption of a more constant (flat) pacing strategy, rather than the commonly used reverse J-shaped approach, might be considered for racing over this new distance. Finally, technical aspects, such as stroke rate and gearing, may require adjustment for optimal performance; however, research is clearly required to explore such effects., Conclusions: Our intention is to stimulate discussion and debate, with the provision of practical recommendations that aim to optimize rowers' preparation for and performance at the 2028 Olympic Games.