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Development is a continuous process, but few studies have assessed the simultaneous impact of prenatal and postnatal phthalate exposure on children’s behavioral and emotional development. A total of 491 mother–child pairs from the general population in southern Taiwan were studied from 2021 to 2022. Urinary concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalate metabolites—mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), mono-benzyl phthalate (MBzP), and mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP)—were measured in pregnant mothers during the second trimester and in their corresponding children aged 1.5 to 3 years. Behavioral symptoms in children were evaluated using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Odds ratios (ORs) represent a 1-unit increase in log10-transformed creatinine-corrected maternal urine concentrations. Prenatal maternal urinary MnBP levels were associated with total problems (OR = 19.32, 95% CI: 1.80–43.13, p = 0.04), anxiety (OR = 33.58, 95% CI: 2.16–521.18, p = 0.01), and sleep problems (OR = 41.34, 95% CI: 1.04–1632.84, p = 0.04) in children. Additionally, urinary MnBP levels in children correlated with total problems (OR = 7.06, 95% CI: 1.01–49.05, p = 0.04) and internalizing problems (OR = 11.04, 95% CI: 1.27–95.72, p = 0.01). These findings suggest that prenatal and postnatal exposure to dibutyl phthalate (DBP), metabolized as MnBP, distinctly affects children’s behavioral development.