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Background While special educational needs (SEN) are increasingly recorded among schoolchildren, infant breastfeeding has been associated with reduced incidence of childhood physical and mental health problems. This study investigated relationships between infant feeding method and risk of all-cause and cause-specific SEN. Methods and findings A population cohort of schoolchildren in Scotland was constructed by linking together health (maternity, birth, and health visitor records) and education (annual school pupil census) databases. Inclusion was restricted to singleton children, born in Scotland from 2004 onwards with available breastfeeding data and who attended local authority mainstream or special schools between 2009 and 2013. Generalised estimating equation models with a binomial distribution and logit link function investigated associations between infant feeding method at 6 to 8 weeks and all-cause and cause-specific SEN, adjusting for sociodemographic and maternity factors. Of 191,745 children meeting inclusion criteria, 126,907 (66.2%) were formula-fed, 48,473 (25.3%) exclusively breastfed, and 16,365 (8.5%) mixed-fed. Overall, 23,141 (12.1%) children required SEN. Compared with formula feeding, mixed feeding and exclusive breastfeeding, respectively, were associated with decreased all-cause SEN (OR 0.90, 95% CI [0.84,0.95], p < 0.001 and 0.78, [0.75,0.82], p < 0.001), and SEN attributed to learning disabilities (0.75, [0.65,0.87], p < 0.001 and 0.66, [0.59,0.74], p < 0.001), and learning difficulties (0.85, [0.77,0.94], p = 0.001 and 0.75, [0.70,0.81], p < 0.001). Compared with formula feeding, exclusively breastfed children had less communication problems (0.81, [0.74,0.88], p = 0.001), social–emotional–behavioural difficulties (0.77, [0.70,0.84], p = 0.001), sensory impairments (0.79, [0.65,0.95], p = 0.01), physical motor disabilities (0.78, [0.66,0.91], p = 0.002), and physical health conditions (0.74, [0.63,0.87], p = 0.01). There were no significant associations for mixed-fed children (communication problems (0.94, [0.83,1.06], p = 0.312), social–emotional–behavioural difficulties (0.96, [0.85,1.09], p = 0.541), sensory impairments (1.07, [0.84,1.37], p = 0.579), physical motor disabilities (0.97, [0.78,1.19], p = 0.754), and physical health conditions (0.93, [0.74,1.16], p = 0.504)). Feeding method was not significantly associated with mental health conditions (exclusive 0.58 [0.33,1.03], p = 0.061 and mixed 0.74 [0.36,1.53], p = 0.421) or autism (exclusive 0.88 [0.77,1.01], p = 0.074 and mixed 1.01 [0.84,1.22], p = 0.903). Our study was limited since only 6- to 8-week feeding method was available precluding differentiation between never-breastfed infants and those who stopped breastfeeding before 6 weeks. Additionally, we had no data on maternal and paternal factors such as education level, IQ, employment status, race/ethnicity, or mental and physical health. Conclusions In this study, we observed that both breastfeeding and mixed feeding at 6 to 8 weeks were associated with lower risk of all-cause SEN, and SEN attributed to learning disabilities and learning difficulty. Many women struggle to exclusively breastfeed for the full 6 months recommended by WHO; however, this study provides evidence that a shorter duration of nonexclusive breastfeeding could nonetheless be beneficial with regard to the development of SEN. Our findings augment the existing evidence base concerning the advantages of breastfeeding and reinforce the importance of breastfeeding education and support. In a cohort of 191,745 Scottish schoolchildren, Michael Fleming and colleagues explore infant feeding methods and special educational need. Author summary Why was this study done? Infant breastfeeding has been associated with reduced physical and mental health problems in childhood which contribute toward special educational need (SEN). Previous studies have not investigated the impact of mixed feeding, have not adjusted for child, maternal, and pregnancy confounders, have encountered bias, or have used a narrow definition of SEN. What did the researchers do and find? We linked national, routinely collected, health data (maternity, birth, and health visitor records) and education data (annual school pupil census) together to investigate the association between mode of infant feeding at 6 to 8 weeks of age and both all-cause and cause-specific SEN in Scotland. Our study cohort comprised all singleton children, born in Scotland from 2004 onwards with available breastfeeding data and who attended local authority mainstream or special schools in Scotland between 2009 and 2013. Outcomes for 48,473 exclusively breastfed children and 16,365 mixed-fed children, respectively, were compared to 126,907 formula-fed children, adjusting for sociodemographic and maternity factors. Compared to children who were formula-fed, we observed that, after adjusting for available sociodemographic and maternity factors, exclusively breastfed children and mixed-fed children both had lower risk of all-cause SEN and SEN attributed to learning disabilities and learning difficulties. Exclusively breastfed children additionally had lower risk of communication problems, social–emotional–behavioural difficulties, sensory impairments, physical motor disabilities, and physical health conditions. What do these findings mean? For women who struggle to breastfeed for the full 6 months recommended by WHO, our study suggests that a shorter duration of nonexclusive breastfeeding could still be beneficial with regard to the development of SEN. Our findings augment the existing evidence base concerning the advantages of breastfeeding and reinforce the importance of breastfeeding education and support.

Abstract Background Previous studies suggest an association between age within schoolyear and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Scotland and Wales have different school entry cut-off dates (six months apart) and policies on holding back children. We aim to investigate the association between relative age and treated attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in two countries, accounting for held-back children. Methods Routine education and health records of 1,063,256 primary and secondary schoolchildren in Scotland (2009–2013) and Wales (2009–2016) were linked. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationships between age within schoolyear and treated ADHD, adjusting for child, maternity and obstetric confounders. Results Amongst children in their expected school year, 8,721 (0.87%) had treated ADHD (Scotland 0.84%; Wales 0.96%). In Wales, ADHD increased with decreasing age (youngest quartile, adjusted OR 1.32, 95% CI 1.19–1.46) but, in Scotland, it did not differ between the youngest and oldest quartiles. Including held-back children in analysis of their expected year, the overall prevalence of treated ADHD was 0.93%, and increased across age quartiles in both countries. More children were held back in Scotland (57,979; 7.66%) than Wales (2,401; 0.78%). Held-back children were more likely to have treated ADHD (Scotland OR 2.18, 95% CI 2.01–2.36; Wales OR 1.70, 95% CI 1.21–2.31) and 81.18% of held-back children would have been in the youngest quartile of their expected year. Conclusions Children younger within schoolyear are more likely to be treated for ADHD, suggesting immaturity may influence diagnosis. However, these children are more likely to be held back in countries that permit flexibility, attenuating the relative age effect.

Background Looked after children are defined as children who are in the care of their local authority. Previous studies have reported that looked after children have poorer mental and physical health, increased behavioural problems, and increased self-harm and mortality compared to peers. They also experience poorer educational outcomes, yet population-wide research into the latter is lacking, particularly in the United Kingdom. Education and health share a bidirectional relationship; therefore, it is important to dually investigate both outcomes. Our study aimed to compare educational and health outcomes for looked after children with peers, adjusting for sociodemographic, maternity, and comorbidity confounders. Methods and findings Linkage of 9 Scotland-wide databases, covering dispensed prescriptions, hospital admissions, maternity records, death certificates, annual pupil census, examinations, school absences/exclusions, unemployment, and looked after children provided retrospective data on 715,111 children attending Scottish schools between 2009 and 2012 (13,898 [1.9%] looked after). Compared to peers, 13,898 (1.9%) looked after children were more likely to be absent (adjusted incidence rate ratio [AIRR] 1.27, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.24 to 1.30) and excluded (AIRR 4.09, 95% CI 3.86 to 4.33) from school, have special educational need (SEN; adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 3.48, 95% CI 3.35 to 3.62) and neurodevelopmental multimorbidity (AOR 2.45, 95% CI 2.34 to 2.57), achieve the lowest level of academic attainment (AOR 5.92, 95% CI 5.17 to 6.78), and be unemployed after leaving school (AOR 2.12, 95% CI 1.96 to 2.29). They were more likely to require treatment for epilepsy (AOR 1.50, 95% CI 1.27 to 1.78), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; AOR 3.01, 95% CI 2.76 to 3.27), and depression (AOR 1.90, 95% CI 1.62 to 2.22), be hospitalised overall (adjusted hazard ratio [AHR] 1.23, 95% CI 1.19 to 1.28) for injury (AHR 1.80, 95% CI 1.69 to 1.91) and self-harm (AHR 5.19, 95% CI 4.66 to 5.78), and die prematurely (AHR 3.21, 95% CI 2.16 to 4.77). Compared to children looked after at home, children looked after away from home had less absenteeism (AIRR 0.35, 95% CI 0.33 to 0.36), less exclusion (AIRR 0.63, 95% CI 0.56 to 0.71), less unemployment (AOR 0.53, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.62), and better attainment (AIRR 0.31, 95% CI 0.23 to 0.40). Therefore, among those in care, being cared for away from home appeared to be a protective factor resulting in better educational outcomes. The main limitations of this study were lack of data on local authority care preschool or before 2009, total time spent in care, and age of first contact with social care. Conclusions Looked after children had poorer health and educational outcomes than peers independent of increased neurodevelopmental conditions and SEN. Further work is required to understand whether poorer outcomes relate to reasons for entering care, including maltreatment and adverse childhood events, neurodevelopmental vulnerabilities, or characteristics of the care system. In this record-linkage study in Scotland, Michael Fleming and colleagues compare educational and health outcomes for children who are in the care of their local authority with the outcomes of their peers. Author summary Why was this study done? Looked after children, defined as children placed in the care of their local authority, comprise a vulnerable cohort exhibiting poorer educational and health outcomes compared to peers. Only a few small sample studies have been conducted in the UK, and a recent systematic review reported an urgent need for more population-wide research into the educational outcomes of children placed in social care services. To our knowledge, no previous UK studies have dually investigated educational and health outcomes of looked after children compared to peers using an unselected, nationwide cohort. What did the researchers do and find? We linked together 9 Scotland-wide databases to compare educational and health outcomes of looked after children against peers, adjusting for sociodemographic, maternity, and comorbidity confounders. Looked after children had increased risk of school absenteeism and exclusion; special educational need (SEN); poor academic attainment; unemployment; hospitalisation and mortality; and treatment for epilepsy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression, and neurodevelopmental multimorbidity. Among children in care, those looked after away from home had less absenteeism, less exclusion, less unemployment, and better attainment. What do these findings mean? Looked after children had poorer health and educational outcomes than peers independent of increased neurodevelopmental conditions and SEN. Among those in care, being cared for away from home appeared to be a protective factor resulting in better educational outcomes. Further work is required to understand whether poorer outcomes relate to reasons for entering care, including maltreatment and adverse childhood events, neurodevelopmental vulnerabilities, or characteristics of the care system.

Abstract Background Nine in every thousand children born in the United Kingdom have congenital heart disease, and 250,000 adults are living with the condition. This study aims to investigate the associations between congenital heart disease and educational outcomes among school-aged children in Scotland. Methods Routine health and education databases were linked to produce a cohort of all singleton children born in Scotland and attending a local authority run primary, secondary, or special school in Scotland at some point between 2009 and 2013. Children with congenital heart disease within this cohort were compared with children unaffected by congenital conditions. Outcomes investigated were special educational need (SEN), absenteeism, exclusion, academic attainment, and unemployment. All analyses were adjusted for sociodemographic and maternity confounders. Absenteeism was investigated as a mediating factor in the associations with attainment and unemployment. Results Of the 715,850 children, 6,295 (0.9%) had congenital heart disease and 4,412 (6.1%) had isolated congenital heart disease. Congenital heart disease and isolated congenital heart disease were both significantly associated with subsequent special educational need (OR 3.45, 95% CI 3.26–3.65, p

Abstract Background The Emergency Medical Retrieval Service (EMRS) has provided national pre-hospital critical care and aeromedical retrieval in Scotland since 2010. This study investigates trends in the service and patients attended over the last decade; and factors associated with clinical deterioration and pre-hospital death. Methods A retrospective cohort study was conducted of all service taskings over ten years (2011–2020 inclusive). The EMRS electronic database provided data on location, sociodemographic factors, diagnoses, physiological measurements, clinical management, and pre-hospital deaths. Binary logistic regression models were used to determine change in physiology in pre-hospital care, and factors associated with pre-hospital death. Geospatial modelling, using road and air travel time models, was used to explore transfer times. Results EMRS received 8,069 taskings over the study period, of which 2,748 retrieval and 3,633 pre-hospital critical care missions resulted in patient contact. EMRS was more commonly dispatched to socioeconomically deprived areas for pre-hospital critical care incidents (Spearman’s rank correlation, r(8)=-0.75, p = 0.01). In multivariate analysis, systolic blood pressure 30/min, and Glasgow Coma Score ≤ 14 were associated with pre-hospital mortality independent of demographic factors. Geospatial modelling suggested that aeromedical retrieval reduced the mean time to a critical care unit by 1 h 46 min compared with road/ferry transportation. Conclusion EMRS continues to develop, delivering Pre-Hospital and Retrieval Medicine across Scotland and may have a role in addressing health inequalities, including socioeconomic deprivation and geographic isolation. Age, specific distances from care, and abnormal physiology are associated with death in pre-hospital critical care.