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Depth of processing vocabulary has been the subject of heated discussion among vocabulary researchers. Yet, current literature lacks research comparing different tasks to investigate the acquisition of vocabulary knowledge among adult learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). To fill the gap, we designed five task-based groups based on Technique Feature Analysis (TFA) as a framework to predict the effectiveness of different vocabulary learning tasks with similar or different TFA rankings on L2 vocabulary knowledge gain. The participants were 130 EFL learners (mean age = 21.7, female 61.5%) randomly assigned to the vocabulary learning tasks: reading and multiple-choice items (TFA = 6), reading and choosing definitions (TFA = 6), reading and fill-in-the-blanks (TFA = 7), reading and rewording the sentences (TFA = 6) and composition writing (TFA = 8). The results of the study revealed that tasks with the same TFA scores led to similar vocabulary knowledge gains. While predictions of the TFA are partially supported, composition writing and sentence rewording tasks supersede other tasks in terms of their effectiveness in vocabulary acquisition.

We often talk about the way we talk, and we frequently try to see the way we see, but for some reasons we have rarely touched on the way we touch. The communication we transmit with touch is perceived to be one of the most powerful means of establishing human relationships. In particular, tactile communication with parents, caregivers and teachers is particularly important for infants and students, as it helps make stronger relationships between educators or teachers and schoolers and also between students. Research has demonstrated the numerous benefits that an affective touch has on students, physically, socially and cognitively, or as has observed, touch touches deeper that just one’s skin and it is a recipe for creating meaningful relations. However, in the educational context, touch is perceived to be a complex phenomenon full of tension and emotion. For years, a dilemma has arisen in educational institutions in some countries, whether teachers can touch students or not? Despite the benefits that affective touch brings to students, cases of sexual abuse and inappropriate behavior at school have alerted the education system, to such an extent that many teachers worldwide consider what is and is not appropriate when communicating affectively with their students through touch. In this perspective article, by drawing on previous literature reviews, we shall highlight the benefits that affective touch has on learners.

In this article, we define motor strength as the extent to which a concept is associated with body movements and the motor system that guides body movements. We extend this notion to one of the features of visual representations of some concepts and discuss the role of the motor system in understanding concepts and visual representations that have a significant degree of motor strength. It is suggested that when a concept is understood in its literal sense, the employment of the motor system and gestures in processing that concept depends on its degree of motor strength. If a concept is understood in its metaphorical sense, the employment of the motor system and gestures is dependent on the degree of motor strength of the base of the metaphor through which that concept is understood. The degree of motor strength of a concept relies on its motor affordances and its associations with people’s past experiences. Because the motor system plays an essential role in the grounding of many abstract concepts in the physical environment, the notion of motor strength can help psychologists acquire a clearer understanding of how concepts with varying degrees of motor strength are grounded in the physical environment.

In this article, we discuss the embodiment of infinity as one of fundamental concepts in mathematics. In contrast to the embodiment of many other mathematical concepts, the embodiment of infinity is an endless dynamic process. In embodying +∞, an object moves rightward toward a previously-set limit and passes it. Then, a new limit is set on the right side of the moving object. The moving object continues its movement and passes it as well. The moving object can pass any limit. In other words, there is no impassable limit for it. In embodying -∞, a similar process happens but the movement is leftward. Embodiment of infinitely small quantities has a basic similarity to the embodiment of infinitely large quantities, although it is different in some respects. We call the embodiment of infinity as iterative embodiment. It is iterative because the process of setting a new limit and passing it is repeated endlessly. Finally, it is suggested that in the process of embodying infinitely large and infinitely small quantities, the visual system and the motor system play important roles, as this process involves spatial concepts and movement.

In this study, we examined the types of gestures that occurred with motion-based, static space-based, static object-based, and static event-based metaphors. A group of participants listened to three short stories and then retold them in front of a camera. The camera could record participants’ gestures. Each story contained two metaphors of each type. Our aim was to calculate the frequency of occurrence of metaphoric gestures with these metaphors when participants were retelling the stories. We used a contingency table analysis to make a comparison between the four types of gestures in terms of the number of metaphoric gestures that occurred with them. Results of this analysis showed that the number of metaphoric gestures that occurred with motion-based and static space-based metaphors was significantly higher than the number of metaphoric gestures that occurred with static object-based and static event-based metaphors. Based on these results, it is suggested that metaphoric embodiment of the target of a metaphor in terms of its base is dependent on the nature of spatial features of the base. When base of a metaphor includes more spatial schematic information, it is more likely to be realized in metaphoric gestures. This happens for motion-based and static space-based metaphors.

Language is a unique phenomenon and special enough to be treated meticulously in its analysis. Several models describe the underlying mechanisms for language acquisition and its processing. One of the most salient ones is the Competition Model suggested by Bates and MacWhinney (1982). We reviewed the CM from its initial principles proposed by Bates and MacWhinney, its adequacy and development, to its recent language learning version. This review discusses challenges regarding CM’s accountability for Persian and Bandari (a language variety of Persian) and its potential pedagogical implications. Conclusions are drawn on whether the CM can be implemented in first-language acquisition studies and second-language learning.

AbstractThis paper reports on a study conducted in a primary school in Santiago, Chile, where a sample of 18 randomly selected first-grade students wore a mini video camera mounted on eyeglasses in their mathematics’ lessons. Using Google Images, we identified frames from the recordings where the classroom teacher appeared in the students’ visual field. The results show that low and high achieving students differed in paying visual attention in their mathematics lessons, particularly when the teachers’ discourse was accompanied by gestures. Furthermore, high and low achieving students were visually engaged with teachers’ instructional information in different ways, and at different times throughout the 90 minutes of the lesson. The findings of this study allow us to understand and explore whether students’ mathematical achievement might be explained by examining students’ visual attention in teacher-student interactions at the beginning of the year. The findings of this study have particular importance for the early identification of lower achievers in mathematics at an early stage, and hence allow us to plan effective interventions to support these students.

Understanding how humans acquire or learn a language has been controversial in various disciplines. Most vigorously, psychologists and linguists have been struggling with models that would represent the processing and development of language. The current literature carries many models, making it formidable for the researchers to heed the appropriate approach. A review of the most salient models could provide enlightenment on such bewildering concerns. To this aim, this systematic review paper compares the most reliable and practical models and discusses their salience. By highlighting the requirements of a functional model to be partially universal, we raise issues for a more compelling model that would encompass areas of first and second language acquisition.

Abstract Language learners struggle with achieving their highest reading competence, particularly when they sit standardized tests with authentic advanced passages. The related literature shows a significant gap in suggesting specific techniques or strategies for individuals to develop a reading competence. To fill this gap, this study investigated the potential relationship between EFL learners' reading performance and their learning styles. One hundred thirty-seven participants were administered the TOEFL PBT for their recruitment test, at which the reading scores were evaluated and analyzed. Ehrman and Leaver’s Questionnaire (2003) was used to classify participants’ learning styles in an ectenic-synoptic continuum. We used the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient to find any potential correlation between learners' performance and their scores as an ectenic or a synoptic learner. The results revealed a positive correlation between synoptic learners and success in the reading tasks. Consequently, a regression model provided the classification of successful learners at reading tests. Knowing that teachers have a variety of learners in their classes and their preferred learning styles can help course instructors to design activities that will exercise a range of cognitive processes and perspectives.

Understanding how motion events are encoded and retrieved across languages has significant implications for language teaching, learning, and cognitive linguistics. However, there is hardly any research in this area comparing the motion-related lexical patterning of English textbooks. To this end, this research was conducted to fill this gap. Primarily, we investigated the motion-related patterns in three textbooks taught in countries with different language classes according to motion typology. They were verb-framed (Turkish), satellite-framed (Australian English), and equipollently-framed (Persian). Three novels in each source language were analyzed to discover the effect of these languages on the development of teaching materials. This provided the research with deep insights into Talmy’s categorization. The results from the corpus displayed a weak modification of English in EFL textbooks in Iran and Turkey that might have stemmed from their source language cognitive styles. The results also indicated that the degree of emphasis on Path was close in these three languages, which demands a revisit of Talmy’s classification.

Metaphors that describe an abstract concept in terms of a motion concept are widely used to enhance our understanding of abstract concepts. These metaphors are used not only in our daily language but also in learning mathematics. As an example, in the process of understanding the abstract representation of a mathematical concept, a graphical representation may play the role of a mediatory domain. This graphical representation could have a high degree of perceptual and action effector strength. This is particularly the case when a gestures (as a motion) is used to depict the graphical representation. After looking at this example, we discuss perceptual and action effector strength of the base domains of several mathematical metaphors that describe mathematical concepts in terms of spatial and motion concepts. Then, based on the data in the Lancaster Sensorimotor Norms, it is suggested that high degrees of perceptual and action effector strength of the base domains of these metaphors play an important role in the grounding of abstract mathematical concepts in the physical environment.

Abstract This theoretical article looks at the process of understanding abstract concepts from the perspective of distributed models of conceptual representation. According to these models, meanings of concepts are essentially componential; that is, the meaning of any concept is represented by small units of meaning, which are called semantic features. Based on these models, this article suggests that scope of interpretation and range of associated semantic features are two key differences between abstract and concrete concepts. While abstract concepts are interpreted within wide scopes and in association with large sets of semantic features, concrete concepts are interpreted within narrower scopes and in association with relatively smaller sets of semantic features. Extending the discussion into the metaphoric understanding of abstract concepts in terms of concrete concepts, it is suggested that when an abstract concept is processed, the activation of low-level sub-features may take place in a variety of ways.

This work aims to identify the criteria to design activities based on problem-solving tasks that emerge when future early childhood education teachers jointly plan their activities and reflect on them. The participants were 76 students from the Didactics of mathematics subject that was carried out in the 2nd year of the Early Childhood Education Degree of a Catalan public university. This is qualitative research in which the phases of the thematic analysis have been adapted: familiarizing with the data; systematically applying the categories to identify the student criteria emerged; triangulating the analysis with experts; reviewing and discussing the results. The Didactic Suitability Criteria (DSC), from the Ontosemiotic approach (OSA) framework to design tasks and their indicators, were used to categorise and analyse the tasks performed by future teachers. As a result, it was identified that when the future teachers adopt consensually design their activities, they are implicitly based on the Didactic Suitability Criteria (DSC). Still, not all their indicators emerge since their reflection is spontaneous and is not guided by an explicit guideline that serves them to show their didactic analysis in detail. The study concludes that it would be convenient to offer future teachers a tool, such as DSC, to have explicit criteria to guide the designs of their mathematical tasks. In this sense, a future line of research opens, much needed, to adapt the DSC to the singularities of this educational stage.

La atención visual es un indicador importante en las interacciones entre docentes y estudiantes. Este artículo presenta los resultados de un estudio que buscó determinar cómo fluctúa la atención visual que los estudiantes prestan a la persona docente durante sus clases de matemáticas e inglés y detectar posibles diferencias en dicha atención. El estudio se llevó a cabo en una escuela secundaria con una muestra de 16 estudiantes (varones). Los datos se obtuvieron a través de una mini cámara de video, montada sobre las gafas que son usadas por los estudiantes. A través del uso de imágenes de Google, analizamos de manera automática y objetiva 2613 fotogramas de las grabaciones en las que la persona docente de la clase aparecía en el campo visual de los estudiantes. Los resultados dan cuenta de la diferencia en la atención visual de los estudiantes entre los introvertidos y los extrovertidos durante los 90 minutos de clase. También se observó que los estudiantes estaban más comprometidos visualmente cuando el discurso de la persona docente estaba acompañado de gestos. Se destaca la importancia de diversificar las interacciones que busque otras formas de comprometer a los estudiantes en los últimos dos tercios de la clase. Algunas implicaciones para los programas de desarrollo profesional se derivan de este estudio.

A critical assessment of the current systematical planning and an in-depth review of the teaching materials efficiently improve fine educational materials to the benefit of developed learning and teaching contexts. In some countries, such as Iran, that belong to the expanding circle, local book writers provide English teaching materials that may ignore sociopragmatic language components, particularly culture. There is a blind spot and massive gap in the related literature regarding the inclusion and organization of cultural knowledge in these textbooks. This study investigated culture in Iranian schools by conducting a nationwide survey to fill the gap. The investigation was based on the components of the curriculum administered and used in Iran, namely Vision Series. The evaluation was aimed at two prospects; firstly, to interpret whether the English textbooks taught at high schools in Iran have standardized principles and elements regarding Communication and Culture. Secondly, to investigate the extent to which cultural knowledge and technology as the curricular components are implemented in the Vision Series. In this respect, the 5 Cs checklist developed by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages was employed. The evaluation done by 120 English language teachers reveals that the textbook Vision 3 is more preferable and desirable than Vision 1 and 2, yet not significantly. The evaluation based on the seven curricular components indicates that Vision textbooks have standards at a low level and are not designed and developed to enhance language learners’ cultural competence in the target language. This study highlights the role of enhancing language learners’ cultural awareness in the expanding circle of World Englishes.

This study aimed to examine the embodied conceptualization of hope through metaphors. We asked a group of participants to discuss their hopes in a semi-structured interview. We examined the types of hand, head, and eyebrow gestures produced when they were talking about their future hopes. The obtained results showed that when participants talked about their future hopes, they mainly used forward hand gestures, rightward head gestures, and upward eyebrow gestures. Based on these results, it is suggested that various semantic components and emotional associations of hope are metaphorically embodied in different manners in various parts of the body. The future aspect of hope is conceptualized as a forward movement and is embodied as a forward hand gesture. The good or positive emotional aspect associated with future hopes is metaphorically conceptualized as a rightward head gesture or an upward eyebrow gesture. We call this process distributed embodiment of a metaphorical concept. Our proposal is supported by the findings of past studies that have found future is metaphorically embodied as something in front of us (or forward movement), and good is metaphorically embodied as upper space (or upward movement) or right side (or rightward movement).

This article discusses the cognitive process of transforming one representation of mathematical entities into another representation. This process, which has been called mathematical metaphor, allows us to understand and embody a difficult-to-understand mathematical entity in terms of an easy-to-understand entity. When one representation of a mathematical entity is transformed into another representation, more cognitive resources such as the visual and motor systems can come into play to understand the target entity. Because of their nature, some curves, which are one group of visual representations, may have a great motor strength. It is suggested that directedness, straightness, length, and thinness are some possible features that determine degree of motor strength of a curve. Another possible factor that can determine motor strength of a curve is the strength of association between shape of the curve and past experiences of the observer (and her/his prior knowledge). If an individual has had the repetitive experience of observing objects moving along a certain curve, the shape of the curve may have a great motor strength for her/him. In fact, it can be said that some kind of metonymic relationship may be formed between the shapes of some curves and movement experiences.

AbstractSince formal mathematics is discussed in terms of abstract symbols, many students face difficulties to acquire a clear understanding of mathematical concepts and ideas. Transforming abstract or dis-embodied representations of mathematical concepts and ideas into embodied representations is a strategy to make mathematics more tangible and understandable. This representational transformation allows us to actively employ our sensorimotor resources in the process of mathematical understanding. However, a one-way transformation of dis-embodied mathematical representations into embodied representations cannot always be the best strategy to understand mathematics. In order to omit or suppress contextually irrelevant information, we may need to transform an embodied representation into the dis-embodied representation. In other words, a dynamic mechanism in which the individual shifts between the two types of representational transformation could be the best way to acquire a better understanding of mathematical concepts/ideas and solve mathematical problems.

In this article, we discuss the process of understanding continuity, which is one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. The continuity of mathematical functions is formally defined in terms of abstract symbols and operations. This representation of continuity is very abstract or dis-embodied. Therefore, it is difficult to acquire a clear understanding of it. To facilitate the process of understanding this concept, it is transformed into a strongly embodied motion-based representation which enables us to employ a wider range of sensorimotor networks to understand the concept of continuity. This is one of the most important cases of understanding a highly abstract and difficult-to-define mathematical concept as a strongly embodied motion concept.

Results of the studies on the way language and body coordinate in communication (through language and gesture) have significant implications for language, education, and cognitive studies. However, there is a lack of convenient research in this area analyzing perceptual changes within individuals. To fill this gap, we investigated the embodied realizations of literal sentences representing perceptual changes and metaphorical sentences describing the phenomena in terms of perceptual changes. We classified sentences that referred to a visual, auditory, haptic, gustatory, or olfactory change. Participants listened to four narratives that contained five literal sentences describing a real perceptual change and five metaphorical sentences that described a phenomenon in terms of a perceptual change. We analyzed the recorded videos of the participants. The total number of literal sentences that described a real perceptual change was obtained for each modality (visual, auditory, haptic, gustatory, olfactory) separately. Also, the total number of gestures used with each category of these literal statements was obtained. Only iconic and non-iconic gestures that described such perceptual changes as the movement of an object in the space were counted. The results revealed that gestures accompanied at least 53% of literal and 56% of metaphorical sentences. These results suggest that literal and metaphorical perceptual change sentences could be understood as movements at a conceptual level. The similarity between embodied realizations of literal and metaphorical sentences supports one of the main assumptions of the strong version of embodied cognition.

This article discusses perspective and frame of reference in the metaphorical description of mathematical concepts in terms of motions, gestures, and embodied actions. When a mathematical concept is described metaphorically in terms of gestures, embodied actions, or fictive motions, the motor system comes into play to ground and understand that concept. Every motion, gesture, or embodied action involves a perspective and a frame of reference. The flexibility in taking perspective and frame of reference allows people to embody a mathematical concept or idea in various ways. Based on the findings of past studies, it is suggested that the graphical representation of a mathematical concept may activate those areas of the motor system that are involved in the production of that graphical representation. This is supported by studies showing that when observers look at a painting or handwritten letters, they simulate the painter’s or writer’s hand movements during painting or writing. Likewise, the motor system can contribute to the grounding of abstract mathematical concepts, such as functions, numbers, and arithmetic operations.

This paper presents a review of studies that have provided evidence supporting metaphorical embodiment. These studies are divided into three categories of behavioral, neuroimaging, and corpus studies. After summing up the findings of these studies, it is concluded that metaphorical embodiment is supported by these three lines of research. This is followed by a review of a number of studies that have measured sensorimotor and action effector strengths of various concepts. Then, the idea of sensorimotor and action effector strength of concepts is linked to metaphorical embodiment to present the main idea of the paper. Based on the findings of studies that have measured sensorimotor and action effector strengths of concepts, it is suggested that the degree of involvement of sensorimotor systems in mental simulation of metaphoric actions may not be at the same level in all metaphors. It depends on the sensorimotor strength of the base of the metaphor in various modalities. If the base of a metaphor has a high degree of perceptual strength in a certain modality, that modality plays the most important role in the processing of that metaphor, while other modalities take less important roles. In other words, depending on the sensorimotor strengths of the base of a metaphor in various modalities, those modalities have various levels of importance in the processing of that metaphor. If the base of the metaphor is weak in all modalities, modal resources can come into play to process that metaphor.

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of manner adverbs on the gestural embodiment of actions that are described by literal and metaphoric sentences. We asked a group of participants to read and then orally retell four stories. Each story had two versions. In one version, literal and metaphoric sentences describing literal and metaphorical actions did not include manner adverbs. In the other version of each story, the same sentences included a manner adverb that provided more information about literal or metaphoric actions. Participants’ reproductions of stories were recorded with a camera and were analyzed to make a comparison between gestures that accompanied sentences that included a manner adverb and sentences that did not include a manner adverb. The results showed that when literal and metaphoric sentences included a manner adverb, there was a higher probability of using a gesture than when these sentences were used without a manner adverb. In other words, using a manner adverb increases the probability of using a gesture with literal and metaphorical sentences. Therefore, it is suggested that adding a manner adverb to a literal or metaphoric sentence can strengthen the process of embodiment of the action described in that sentence. We present two explanations for this observation.

This study aimed to examine the gestural embodiment of intensifiers in iconic and metaphoric gestures when these words are used with literal and metaphoric statements. We asked a group of Persian native speakers to listen to and then retell a set of Persian stories. In these stories, a number of intensifiers were used with literal and metaphoric sentences. The results showed that when an intensifier was used with a literal sentence, there was a higher probability of using an iconic or beat gesture than when there was no intensifier in the sentence. Also, when an intensifier was used with a metaphoric sentence, there was a higher probability of using a metaphoric or beat gesture than when the sentence contained no intensifier. These results suggested that an intensifier in a literal or metaphoric sentence can strengthen the mental simulation and the embodiment of objects, ideas, or situations. When an intensifier is used with a literal or metaphoric sentence, the strength of activation in the premotor areas may be amplified and spread to motor areas. In contrast, when no such intensifier is used in a literal or metaphoric sentence, there is a higher probability of simulation in premotor areas without spreading to the primary motor areas. The production of an internal force and expressing emphasis are two other possibilities that may explain the higher use of gestures with intensifiers.

The social, scientific and technological development of recent years has encouraged the incorporation of computational thinking in the school curriculum of various countries progressively, starting from early childhood education. This research aims to characterize future kindergarten teachers’ traits of didactic-mathematical and computational knowledge presented when solving and posing robotics problems. Firstly, aspects of the mathematical and computational knowledge of the participants (97 students of the subject of Didactics of Mathematics of the Degree in Early Childhood Education at a Spanish university) were identified when they solved problems as users of the Blue-Bot didactic robot. Secondly, we analyzed their justifications for reflecting on the design of robotics problems. The results indicate that future teachers present characteristics of didactic-mathematical knowledge when solving and designing robotics problems, although errors and ambiguities are evident, especially in the procedures and representations of the programming. These shortcomings significantly influence the didactic suitability of the robotics problems they design. From a future perspective, in the training of future teachers, it is considered relevant to incorporate didactic-mathematical and computational knowledge that allows them to develop logical, spatial and computational thinking.

RESUMO Este artigo relata um estudo realizado sobre a interação professor-aluno em uma escola pública dos anos iniciais, na cidade de Santiago, Chile. O estudo realizou uma análise quantitativa dos quadros das imagens capturadas por uma minicâmera montada em óculos de um grupo de 18 estudantes. Os quadros selecionados foram os que a professora aparece no campo visual dos alunos. A análise foi desenvolvida a partir do conceito de proxêmica e os resultados mostram que há momentos em que a professora da sala de aula interage com os alunos em um nível mais próximo e, em outros, há um distanciamento maior. Além disso, foi possível identificar diferenças entre meninos e meninas quanto aos padrões proxêmicos de envolvimento visual na interação. Os resultados deste estudo sinalizam novos sentidos para a análise da interação professor-aluno com foco em aspectos não verbais na construção das relações de ensino e aprendizagem.

In this article, we extend our previously suggested categorization of metaphors to literal statements, and categorize metaphorical and literal statements into four pairs of corresponding metaphorical and literal statements: (1) motion-based metaphorical/literal statements; (2) static space-based metaphorical/literal statements; (3) static object-based metaphorical/literal statements; (4) static event-based metaphorical/literal statements. Then, we report a study that investigated the use of metaphoric and iconic gestures with these corresponding categories during the retelling of a set of stories by a group of thirty participants. The participants listened to five audio short stories. Each story contained one statement of each metaphoric category and one statement of each literal category. After listening to each story, they retold it in their own language in front of a camera. The results showed that event-based metaphors and event-based literal statements were accompanied by the smallest number of metaphoric and iconic gestures. Furthermore, there was a significant similarity between each metaphorical category and its corresponding literal category in the number of gestures that were used with these categories. This similarity supports the idea that the mechanisms underlying the embodiment of metaphorical and literal statements are essentially similar.

In this paper, we classify metaphors into four categories: motion-based metaphors, static space-based metaphors, static object-based metaphors, and static event-based metaphors. Then, a study that investigated the use of gestures with these types of metaphors is reported. The aim was to examine how these types of metaphors are used with metaphoric and beat gestures during the process of re-telling stories. The participants of the study listened to three audio stories. Each story contained two motion-based metaphors, two static space-based metaphors, two static object-based metaphors, and two static event-based metaphors. After listening to each story, they had to retell the stories in front of a camera. The videos were analyzed to determine the number of metaphoric gestures and beat gestures that had been used by participants during the retelling of the stories. The results showed that the highest number of metaphoric gestures had been used with static space-based metaphors. This was followed by motion-based metaphors, static object-based metaphors, and static event-based metaphors, respectively. On the other hand, the highest number of beat gestures was used with static event-based metaphors. These findings indicate that the use of metaphoric gestures and beat gestures accompanying metaphors is highly dependent on the spatial and motoric properties of the base of the metaphors, which supports the idea of embodied metaphor comprehension.