Search

In this paper we report the study of shell midden taphonomy using archaeological soil micromorphology on an experimentally constructed shell midden. Using common cockle shells, and two different cooking techniques (boiling and roasting), we study the changes occurring in the shells, and in the soil below the shells. Our aim is to provide a clearer picture of trampling and various cooking techniques on prehistoric shell middens. Examples from Northern European contexts are provided as a comparison to our experimental analysis. We find that discolouration of the shell matrix occurs also at boiling temperatures. Differentiation between boiling and roasting can be done by studying the cracking of the shells. The temperature difference between boiling and roasting however does not lead to important differences in breakage resulting from trampling. Most importantly, our study highlights the need to incorporate the transformation of deposited shells into the formation processes of a shell midden accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The currently accepted narrative on the prehistory of bronze alloying technology follows deterministic, outdated assumptions of technological progression that ignore the role of contextual and performance factors in the decision-making processes, thus neglecting human agency. In essence, it is expected that newer techniques were overarchingly more advanced than older ones and hence replaced them. The validity of this narrative should be challenged and revised. A critical analysis of worldwide literature exposed that, contrary to predictions of the accepted theory, (1) the oldest alloying techniques persisted for centuries after newer ones were invented, and (2) several techniques usually coexisted in the same contexts. We hypothesised that these counterintuitive findings could be explained by differences in performance between techniques, (dis)advantageous at different settings. To obtain empirical information on the performance of techniques and test for behaviourally relevant performance differences between them, a series of alloying experiments were conducted. The results show that all techniques can produce objects of broadly equivalent quality while offering different trade-offs during production. Therefore, every technique—or a combination—can be advantageous under certain conditions, and there are no grounds to support a linear trajectory of substitution. These results debunk the traditional narrative and predict that co-smelting and cementation techniques were more frequently practiced in the past than hitherto assumed. Our propositions prompt a readjustment of explanatory models of bronze production organisation, trade, and consumption while opening unexplored research paths for archaeology and the history of technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tubular segments of Scaphopoda (tusk shell) were traditionally used by Aboriginal peoples in the manufacture of ornate bead necklaces across northwest Australia. Twenty-seven scaphopod shell beads were recovered from Boodie Cave on Barrow Island dating to between 13,500 and 10,600 cal BP. We compare the Boodie Cave bead assemblage to historical necklace collections as well as experimental studies on scaphopod blanks to characterise bead manufacture, breakage, use-wear, and placement patterns. Results demonstrate that the Boodie Cave beads are larger than other northwest Australian collections; have been manufactured by an anvil-rested percussion technique; have signs of use-wear in the form of polish and rounding but are less curated than specimens from the inland Kimberley. The use-wear study identified that the Boodie Cave beads were strung in a series in a pattern not observed in historical scaphopod necklaces from northern Australia. This patterning may represent a regional variation in display and technological organisation and was likely part of wider ornamental practices documented in historical sources. In all, the Boodie Cave beads provide early and additional evidence for the trade, wearing, and loss of scaphopod beads by mobile hunter-gathers on a dynamic coastline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opus signinum is a lime mortar mix that includes crushed pottery as an aggregate. Because it is water-resistant, it was used to line hydraulic structures like pools and aqueducts. While there have been numerous recreations of Roman 'concretes' in the past, hydrophobic linings have received little attention, and all preliminary studies in these recreations have paid more attention to the dry components and the lime than to the hydric needs of the mortar. The experiment presented here was to gain a better understanding, with the help of traditional builders, of the process of mixing and applying hydrophobic linings and calculate the water consumption of individual samples. The data obtained contribute to assessing the water consumption needs on Roman construction sites, what associated logistics these volumes required, and what the technicalities of applying this specific type of lining were. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insects play a crucial role in cadaveric decomposition, yet their contribution to taphonomic alterations on bones is often overlooked. This study investigates insect activity's impact on bone surface modifications under different environmental conditions. Five unfleshed pig heads were subjected to varied settings—buried and exposed—across coastal and inland contexts. Nine insect taxa were identified, including flies (Sarcophagidae, Calliphoridae [Chrysomia albiceps], Fanniidae, Muscidae), beetles (Dermestidae [Dermestes maculatus], Cleridae [Necrobia rufipes], Hydrophilidae [Cercyon cf. arenarius]), ants (Formicidae [Tetramorium depressum]), and termites (Kalotermitidae [Cryptotermes brevis]). Taphonomic changes observed on bone surfaces varied between buried and exposed specimens, with greater insect diversity and more pronounced modifications in exposed samples. Striations, linear marks, perforations, and bone destruction were linked to specific insect taxa, revealing novel osteophagic behavior in certain species. Termite activity, identified by faecal pellets, occasionally resulted in bone damage. Notably, beetle-induced alterations were absent in coastal environments, suggesting post-decomposition transport when these modifications appear on bone elements from coastal sites. This is the first experimental study in archaeoentomology, providing critical insights into insect-driven taphonomic processes in coastal and inland archaeological sites, with implications for forensic and archaeological interpretations of bone alterations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cut marks are striae accidentally produced by the contact made between the edge of a cutting tool and bone surfaces by anthropogenic activity, presenting evidence of hominin carcass processing and behaviour, butchery activities or diet. Post-depositional processes can cause the alteration (chemical or mechanical) of bones surfaces, changing their composition and causing the modification of bone surfaces. Previous research has addressed the problem of chemical alteration from a qualitative perspective, resulting in the loss of all diagnostic characteristics of the cut marks affected by these processes. Geometrics Morphometrics has led to great progress in the study of cut marks from a quantitative perspective and can be useful for the study of altered cut marks. In this study, an experiment was carried out in which 36 cut marks were reproduced and chemically altered. These marks were scanned and digitized before and after each phase of alteration. They were analyzed metrically as well as using Geometric Morphometrics, in order to study the evolution of modifications to cut mark morphology during the experiment. Results show clear morphological differences between the different phases of alteration with altered cut marks presenting a general tendency towards a decrease in both the width and depth over time. Research of this type opens up a new path for the study of the chemical alteration of cut marks, as well as other striae, through the application of Geometric Morphometrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

mïmï appears to have diverse applications, appearing in administrative documents, jar labels, depictions of commodity transportation, as well as being used in therapeutic recipes. To date, a consensus for its translation has not been reached. This article re-evaluates the suitability of past identifications in terms of new perspectives in Egyptology, and explores an extended corpus of source material that together suggest a new identification, 'linseed', is more appropriate. The hypothesis is further supported through the recreation and discussion of the materiality of ancient Egyptian medical recipes composed of mïmï and other ingredients with secure translations, and demonstrates: 1) that linseed was a commodity which was taxed, stored, and distributed by the ancient Egyptian administration; 2) that the effect of this product upon the body was observed and harnessed in therapeutic medical recipes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conceptual artist Rafa Esparza argues that adobe bricks are loaded with meaning and represent ethnic Mexican heritage and communion with land through Chicanx ritual labor. Our ethnographic experiences in northern New Mexico and our pedagogical and research work in experimental archaeology in California confirm Esparza’s assertion. Among traditional Chicanx villages in New Mexico, adobe construction serves to reinforce community relations. Among Chicanx college students, constructing experimental earthen ovens in the California laboratory creates new student communities and validates familial and social memories of adobe making in ancestral homelands. Bringing together initially separate research threads, we consider adobe’s culturally sustaining capacity and its potential in scientific archaeological research as inextricable facets of the same research-teaching system we now call ChicanXperimental archaeology. This article plants three interrelated seeds in that vein, offering starting points for: (1) a culturally sustaining college teaching model centered on adobe making; (2) a replicable experimental adobe oven construction and testing model with field-applicable results; and (3) project expansion to California elementary school classrooms with the same pedagogical and scientific goals in mind. We invite our readers, especially archaeologists and K-12 teachers, to explore and experiment alongside us, providing an experimental oven blueprint and suggestions as to prospects and best practices for both sides of this project.

Abstract Within archaeological studies of ancient pottery, understanding the techniques used to form vessels from unfired clay provides significant information on the history of technology and economic systems, as well as wider cultural practices and social interactions. We introduce here a new analytical methodology, using small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) to investigate pottery forming techniques through the preferential orientation of nanoscale objects within pottery fabrics. Significantly, SANS is non-destructive, suitable for both coarse and fine-textured pottery fabrics, provides quantitative data, enables fast-throughput of samples, and is not significantly affected by surface modifications occurring after the primary forming stage. The use of SANS is systematically investigated through over 400 measurements of experimental vessels, and also compared with X-ray microtomography and neutron tomography. The results show that SANS can be used to differentiate wheel-throwing, coil-building, percussion-building, and coil-wheeling techniques. The archaeological application of SANS is demonstrated through a case study of 50 late Roman and early medieval (fourth–sixth century AD) pottery sherds from Hungary, spanning the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the arrival of Barbarian polities into the region. The findings show a transition in production from predominantly wheel-throwing to coil-wheeling, but also coil-building, percussion-building, percussion-wheeling, and drawing. Such changes appear to reflect the disintegration of large-scale centrally organised Roman economic systems, and the diversification of production, consistent with the more diversified technological and cultural backgrounds of the producers themselves.

The article in the EXARC Journal explores the experimental recreation of pumpkin leather mats based on ethnohistoric records from the American Great Plains. The study delves into the production techniques, nutritional aspects, and taphonomic considerations of these mats, which were traditionally woven by Indigenous women. The experiment involved recreating pumpkin mats using bone and stone tools, testing for microfossil residues, and discussing the challenges of identifying this practice archaeologically. The study sheds light on the labor-intensive nature of producing these mats and provides insights into Indigenous foodways and traditional storage methods. [Extracted from the article]

Experimental replication of decorated bone tubes was carried out to determine possible methods of defleshing and to define the nature of linear cut-marks on the bones made by different cutting implements. These studies were carried out to interpret more precisely the production techniques for incised bone tubes recovered from Early Bronze Age (EB) contexts at the site of Tell el-Hesi dating to 2800–2700 bce (EBIIIA). Previous studies had assumed that the bones were incised using metal chisels found on-site, but the new experiments demonstrate that the incised lines were most likely made using denticulated metal (copper/bronze) saws. Modern cow metapodials were defleshed and then cut and sawn with different types of tools. Impressions were made of the experimental and archaeological incised lines and the impressions were studied using Scanning Electron Microscopy. The incised lines made using denticulated metal saws most closely match the incised lines of the ancient incised bone tubes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amber appears in the archaeological material of the Eastern Baltic region in the Middle Neolithic and continues in intensive use until the end of the Neolithic. Four major amber-working centres are known in the Eastern Baltic, the least studied of which is the settlement of Siliņupe (4th mill. BC). Not yet widely applied in research on Stone Age amber technologies, but very promising, is an analytical approach combining experimental archaeology and traceology to study processing choices made in specific production stages (i. e., individual technological elements), revealing that fine-grained sandstone was favoured for surface grinding, while flint tools were most widely used for shaping and surface treatment, distinguishing three techniques, namely shaving, scraping and pressure flaking, each identifiable by characteristic features. The study suggests that amber and flint processing were largely intertwined, as pressure flaking along with indirect percussion (used for splitting amber) derive from flint processing, and in the case of pressure flaking, required specific know-how. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For over a century, scholars have presented several proposals regarding the paint application tools used to create Levantine rock art. However, such proposals have largely rested on theoretical assumptions and inductive inferences that have not been rigorously tested. In this experimental investigation, we compiled these hypotheses and crafted 60 tools that were tested through systematic experiments to assess their performance and technical affordances for the creation of images with techno-visual features equivalent to those of the Levantine paintings. These experiments allowed us to obtain analytical parameters with independent validation, which were used as diagnostic criteria to analyse the rock art from nine sites located in eastern Spain. Results reveal that out of 60 tools, only 10 –five hair brushes, three plant brushes, and two feather brushes–afforded the production of images with techno-visual features highly similar to those of the archaeological paintings. Subsequently, we employed these tools to paint 10 full-size replicas of Levantine motifs, aiming to explore their potential role in the toolkit of prehistoric painters. Drawing on the data from both the systematic and the replicative experiments, and taking into account the level of labour investment required by the technical operations that permeate the production of the paint application tools, we suggest that Levantine technology was not based on an economic logic aimed at minimizing the costs associated with producing the images, but rather on a perspective where the priority was creating paintings with specific techno-visual qualities that reinforced the information transmitted through the graphic code. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bipolar technique is a flaking strategy that has been identified from 3.3 Ma until the twentieth century, with no geographical or chronological homogeneous distribution. It is represented by the intentional contact of an active percussive element against a core rested on an anvil. This tool composite has been described by some researchers as a sign of low-skill of hominins, unable to perform successfully free-hand flaking or for flaking low-quality raw materials. Based on this premise, our research focused on the following question: Are there any quantitative and qualitative differences in terms of both kinematic parameters and technical skills between knappers with different levels of expertise when flaking using the bipolar technique? To get an answer, we developed a systematic experimental program with 12 volunteer participants with different levels of expertise. Then, to assess potential quantifiable differences and to understand the mechanics of bipolar technology, we did a video motion analysis based on kinematic parameters (including position, velocity, acceleration, and kinetic energy of the hammerstone). In addition, we performed a technological analysis of the experimental lithic assemblages to assess the technological differences between knappers based on their levels of expertise. In kinematic parameters, both statistical analysis and observations from the experiment clearly show that there are differences between the levels of expertise in this technique. Intermediate knappers have been observed to apply more velocity and kinetic energy than experts and novices. Also, differences were observed in the flaking strategies. Expert knappers show a longer reduction sequence, while intermediates show shorter one. Moreover, some of the novice knappers did not even obtain a single flake. The results of our experiment stress the complexity of bipolar flaking and that previous assumptions about it might be reconsidered, especially in terms of reconsidering the negative connotations attributed to this flaking technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of Paleolithic art represents one of the most intricate technical and cognitive endeavors of Homo sapiens, marked by its profound antiquity and vast temporal and spatial framework. Despite its significance, there have been no prior studies aimed at understanding the cognitive and motor skills linked to the creation of realistic images characteristic of this artistic cycle. This research integrates archaeology and experimental psychology, premised on the assumption that the neurological basis of Anatomically Modern Humans has not changed substantially since the Upper Paleolithic. This work employs an innovative interdisciplinary approach, utilizing psychometric tests and drawing and engraving tasks monitored by motion-sensing gloves, to compare the performance of experts and non-experts in visual arts when faced with challenges akin to those of Upper Paleolithic artistic production. The results revealed that expertise in visual arts is linked to enhanced spatial abilities and specific patterns in drawing from memory. Additionally, both experts and non-experts displayed similar motor skills when engraving using Paleolithic techniques, suggesting that these techniques required specialized training in the contemporary experts. In conclusion, this research deepens our understanding of the processes involved in Upper Paleolithic artistic production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tyrolean ice mummy known as Ötzi presents some of the earliest direct evidence of tattooing in the human past. Despite decades of study, it remains unclear how the Iceman's tattoos were created and what tools and methods were used. Popular discussions of the Iceman describe his tattoos as having been made by incision, first cutting the skin and then rubbing in pigment from the surface. The authors review the scholarly literature on the Iceman's tattoos and summarize ethnographic, historic, and anthropological research on global patterns of tattooing to contextualize the Iceman's marks within pre-electric tattooing traditions. The results of recent experimental tattooing studies are then compared to the physical signature of the Iceman's marks to evaluate existing claims and provide informed hypotheses as to how those tattoos were created. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Late Middle Palaeolithic Neandertals in France are known to have engaged in the collection and grinding of black minerals rich in manganese dioxide (MnO2), generally presumed for symbolic use as powdered pigments. However, lab-based experiments conducted by Heyes and colleagues (Sci Rep 6: 22159, 2016) have shown that the addition of powdered MnO2 to wood turnings both reduces the temperature required for combustion by ca. 80–180 °C and significantly increases the rate of combustion. This special pyrotechnic property of powdered MnO2 may have been observed and leveraged by Neandertals to aid in fire making—a technology known to Neandertals in this region by at least 50,000 years ago. To test this idea, a series of actualistic fire-making experiments were performed to determine the practical applicability of MnO2 as a tinder-enhancing additive. The flint-and-pyrite percussive fire-making method was employed to produce sparks that were directed onto eight different types of tinder common to temperate Northwest Europe to determine if and to what degree the addition of MnO2 powder improved their ability to capture sparks that then propagate into glowing embers. The results show that MnO2 does indeed considerably improve the ignition efficiency of tinder material over untreated tinder, both in terms of the point of first ignition and the total number of ignitions achieved. It was observed, however, that the incidental addition of pyrite dust onto a tinder over the course of an experiment also appeared to improve its ability to capture sparks. Supplemental experiments using tinder pre-mixed with powdered pyrite confirmed this hypothesis, suggesting pyrite powder similarly expedites fire production. While this finding may raise questions regarding the need for collecting MnO2 for this purpose, its potential utility may lie in (1) its relative softness compared to pyrite, making it much easier to grind or scrape into powder, and (2) the greater potential for MnO2-bearing deposits to yield larger quantities of usable raw material compared to pyrite-bearing outcrops, making it relatively more abundant in some areas. Thus, when available, it is clear that adding MnO2 to tinder would have noticeably reduced the time and energy required to produce fire, making it a potentially novel Neandertal innovation complementary to the fire-making process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The earliest archaeological evidence of wine came from ceramic vessels of the Transcaucasian 'Shulaveri-Shomutepe' or 'Aratashen-Shulaveri-Shomutepe culture' (SSC/AShSh: c. 6000–5200 BC). Western European 'Bell Beaker culture' (BB: c. 2500–2000 BC) is characterized by bell-shaped pottery vessels but has so far not been found with residues consistent with wine. Knowing that wild grapes populated both habitats, the absence of wine during the Bell Beaker period remains to be explained. The main goal of this work was to investigate whether the shape of the vessels could influence the performance of spontaneous fermentation, specifically regarding the production of volatile acidity. Crushed grapes or juices from various grape cultivars were fermented in two types of vessels: (i) borosilicate glass beakers (4–5 L) to imitate bell beakers and (ii) Erlenmeyer flasks (5 L) to imitate SSC/AShSh vessels. Fermentations occurred spontaneously, and the wines were analyzed for their conventional physical–chemical parameters (e.g., ethanol content, total acidity, volatile acidity, pH), chromatic characteristics (e.g., wine color intensity, wine hue), and volatile composition by gas-chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID). At the end of fermentation, the yeast species were identified by molecular methods. In addition, wine yields and phenolic composition (e.g., total phenols, anthocyanins, total pigments) were determined for wild grapes in comparison with six red varieties Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sativa (Vinhão, Marufo, Branjo, Melhorio, Castelão and Tempranillo Tinto), chosen as a function of their genetic relatedness with the wild counterpart. Wines produced from V. sylvestris grapes showed higher total acidity and color intensity when compared to the cultivated varieties. Saccharomyces cerevisiae dominated at the end of all spontaneous fermentations in all types of vessels and conditions. Wines fermented in Erlenmeyers showed ethanol concentrations as high as 14.30% (v/v), while the highest ethanol level was 12.30% (v/v) in beakers. Volatile acidity increased to a maximum of 4.33 g/L (acetic acid) in Erlenmeyers and 8.89 g/L in beakers. Therefore, the shape of the vessels influenced the performance of fermentation, probably due to the different exposures to air, leading to vinegary ferments more frequently in open mouths than in conical-shaped flasks. These results provide a hypothesis based on fermentation performance for the absence of wine produced in the Iberian Peninsula until the arrival of Phoenician settlers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ethnohistoric record from the American Great Plains indicates that dried pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.) strips were often woven into mats as a form of food storage. This form of food storage was likely employed over large geographical areas and deep in time, but archaeological methods for identifying their production and use have been wanting. This experiment used ethnohistoric records to re-create pumpkin mats using bone and stone tools, with special attention to the types of residue and by-products created. We found that while formal bone tools could be used with pumpkin, simple flake stone tools were more efficient. Two pumpkin mats were produced, one in which the rind had been charred and removed prior to processing and one with a raw rind; the raw rind mat succumbed to mould while the charred pumpkin mat was temperature stable for more than two years. Residues were documented on the tools, but the gourd did not contain starch granules, and only the rind (which was removed in this experiment) contains the diagnostic phytoliths. The chaîne opératoire of pumpkin mat manufacture in this experiment explains why microfossil evidence (starch, phytoliths) of the practice has not been recovered in the Great Plains. Without a chemical biomarker, proteomic or ancient DNA approach, the recognition of pumpkin leather mats may remain elusive, which greatly limits archaeological understandings of this important foodway that is closely associated with women’s work.

I am honoured to write a review of the book Eksperimentinė archeologija, Lietuvos materialaus paveldo rekonstrukcija, I tomas or Experimental archaeology, Reconstruction of Material Heritage of Lithuania, volume I; compiled by Daiva Luchtanienė. I have to admit that I know very little about Lithuania and their experimental archaeology and I was looking forward to learning more. I was told the book was bilingual so that I, who can not read a word of Lithuanian to safe my life, would be able to read it.

Copyright of Virtual Archaeology Review is the property of Virtual Archaeology Review and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article explores ways of understanding archival material through collection-based research. Using War Office records held in the UK's National Archives, particularly those relating to Army officers in the period 1790-1820, it provides a methodological framework through worked examples that draws upon documentary analysis and archival material culture, as well as offering a new approach of archival experimental archaeology to reconstruct processes and practices that led to the creation of records. This research shows that the history of documents is critical — though often under appreciated — to historical knowledge. Our approach stresses the importance of examining historically the creation, form, and storage of archival material. Additionally, it demonstrates the value of archivists and historians reconnecting for good practice and research insights and agendas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Horse tooth retouchers have been identified in several Middle and Upper Palaeolithic sites. They have been typically characterised as 'soft' hammers and/or grouped into the category of 'bone retouchers' at a technical level. Bone and teeth have different chemical compositions; teeth are denser and heavier than bone, and consequently, their technological features should not be considered homologous. In this work, we experimentally tested the effectiveness of horse teeth as retouchers. To perform this study, we used 41 modern horse teeth to shape flakes of various raw materials by applying different techniques. The resulting use-wear traces were analysed using high-resolution methods and then characterised. The results allowed us to identify the effectiveness of hypsodont teeth in knapping a wide range of tools and to evaluate the influence of 1) the raw materials, 2) the retouching techniques and 3) the gestures of the different knappers on the morphology of the use-wear marks. This work sheds light on the purpose of using teeth as tools by both Neanderthal and early modern human populations as well as understanding how these human species used them. The study leads us to consider tooth retouchers as important elements of the chaîne opératoire in lithic manufacture. Our goal is to highlight the importance of these types of experimental studies to create analogies and infer past processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of the rotary quern into the Iberian Peninsula during the Iron Age represents a great technological innovation with regard to processing cereals. These mechanisms arrived several centuries later in the Canarian archipelago with the first North African colonists. Contacts with the African continent appear to have either been cut off or minimised a short time later, obliging the colonists to subsist autonomously and adapt to the features of the new territory. Moreover, the archipelago's volcanic character does not offer minerals that could be transformed into metals obliging the new populations to resort to stone tools, an adaptation evidenced by the manufacture of rotary querns. Currently few technological studies of these querns have combined experimental work with hypotheses stemming from archaeological evidence. This article presents two experimental programs that have attempted to reconstruct the operational sequence (chaîne opératoire) of the two main types of rocks exploited for querns in the Canary Islands: volcanic tuff and vesicular basalt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Charred aggregates are one of the most common forms in which millets are preserved on archaeological sites. Despite the lack of consensus on their origin, few studies have attempted to determine how aggregates are formed. Knowing how aggregates are produced allows us to understand the diversity of processes operating in the formation of charred archaeobotanical assemblages. As a contribution to filling this gap, we investigated the charring conditions of archaeological millet assemblages by comparing them to experimentally charred millets grains exposed to different temperatures, and reducing and oxidizing atmospheres, using pyrolysis‐gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry (Py‐GC‐MS) and thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation‐GC‐MS (THM‐GC‐MS). The results show that the formation of aggregates in the millet species studied is due to the transformation of organic material into char and the emission of volatiles as a consequence of the high thermal impact that is produced in some areas of grain clusters. Substances derived from the charring act as a ‘glue’ that holds a grain cluster together, in which some grains are exposed to a temperature range allowing preservation of recognisable grain morphologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many rocks, minerals, and soil types reflect short-wave infrared (SWIR) imagery (900–2500 nm) in distinct ways, and geologists have long relied on this property to aid in the mapping of differing surface lithologies. Although surface archaeological features including artifacts, anthrosols, or structural remains also likely reflect SWIR wavelengths of light in unique ways, archaeological applications of SWIR imagery are rare, largely due to the low spatial resolution and high acquisition costs of these data. Fortunately, a new generation of compact, drone-deployable sensors now enables the collection of ultra-high-resolution (<10 cm), hyperspectral (>100 bands) SWIR imagery using a consumer-grade drone, while the analysis of these complex datasets is now facilitated by powerful imagery-processing software packages. This paper presents an experimental effort to develop a methodology that would allow archaeologists to collect SWIR imagery using a drone, locate surface artifacts in the resultant data, and identify different artifact types in the imagery based on their reflectance values across the 900–1700 nm spectrum. Our results illustrate both the potential of this novel approach to exploring the archaeological record, as we successfully locate and characterize many surface artifacts in our experimental study, while also highlighting challenges in successful data collection and analysis, largely related to current limitations in sensor and drone technology. These findings show that as underlying hardware sees continued improvements in the coming years, drone-acquired SWIR imagery can become a powerful tool for the discovery, documentation, and analysis of archaeological landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fire is an important element for the ceramics production, nevertheless it is usually forgotten when studying or analyzing ceramics in Archaeology. The qualities of the fire and its resultants, described in myths, codices and other documentation gathered by the spaniards made us wonder about the tight relationship handcrafters had with fire. Therefore, through Etnoarchaeology, experimental and sensory Archaeology and Archaeometry is that we approach this study to understand the entanglement created between the body, the crafting, and the language p’urhépecha. In our case study: the ceramics with negative effect from Michoacán, the firing is key and the materials that create the coal imprint on the pieces are not merely design, that is why we want to understand the past conceptions of the firing. ¿The fire is still considered sacred when employed in ceramics?, ¿the ceramic kiln possess agency?, ¿does the firing activates or give the pieces coessence or animacy? The preliminary results of this investigation shows how the inquiries made from the knowledge may allow us to understand past conceptions and believes in production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archaeogaming is an area of increasing interest within archaeology. As archaeogaming's theory and practice are being fleshed out, it is worth considering if there are parallels to traditional archaeological methods within the study of video games. Here, we examine one such possibility: is there an archaeogaming equivalent to experimental archaeology? As a case study, we explore the system used for the mid-1980s development of an unreleased video game prototype for the game company Activision. Through examining this development system, whose use would be otherwise invisible in the finished software artifact, we demonstrate how we have both reconstructed a seemingly lost piece of the system virtually and used this reconstruction for experiments. The methodology we describe can be applied to digital artifacts within contemporary archaeology beyond the scope of video games, and it illustrates some key differences between studying physical and digital artifacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lime is a versatile material that has been used by Maya societies in multiple aspects of their daily life for centuries. It is used in nixtamalization and cooking, ceramic preparation, in the surface of codex, pigment preparation, to support murals and as an important building material. How was lime made? Was lime production a specialized economic activity that fostered exchange between communities? Was its production in pyres and kilns dependent on its location? Was the use of pyres exclusively linked to domestic contexts of low production? These questions are still awaiting an answer in Maya lime production research. This paper presents a case study of experimental lime production carried out in the community of Uayma, Yucatan to try to address these questions. Characterization of the samples from the lime kiln has made it possible to infer mineralogical details and distinguish the ashes present. The recording of the operation of the lime kiln, the materials generated, and the analysis of the samples by molecular spectroscopies allow us to provide insights on the temperatures that were reached in the artisanal production of lime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers a combined archaeological, archaeometric and experimental approach to a demanding gold-working technique attested in Early Mycenaean Greece (seventeenth-fifteenth centuries BCE). The technique, known as ‘gold-embroidery’ consisted in the application of hundreds or thousands of tiny L-shaped gold bars (< 1 cm long) on the organic hilts and pommels of bronze daggers and swords for decorative purposes. The technique required exceptional skills and was used only for adorning prestigious weapons. It is encountered in some of the wealthiest tombs of the Aegean Bronze Age, including the Shaft Graves of Mycenae, several tholoi, the Griffin Warrior tomb at Pylos, etc. In this paper, emphasis is laid on the experimental reconstruction of the technique. The reconstruction has been based on microscopic observations and data acquired through archaeometric analysis. Our goal was to identify the various stages of manufacture. Particularly important was the creation of special tools, which helped us to deal with the minute size of the gold pieces and the delicate movements involved in this technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the benefits of including more hands-on experimental archaeological projects into history college curriculum. These benefits include facilitating deeper transformative student learning, providing opportunities for interdisciplinary and community connections, and reinforcing teaching of historiography. Other benefits include expanding student experiences and providing photo opportunities.

This paper examines how the materiality of lighting influenced the development of ancient rabbinic teachings that would later become the foundations of Jewish law. Drawing on ideas and frameworks from scholarship on material religion, I bring together archaeological finds, experimental archaeology, and references to objects in classical rabbinic literature to argue that the ways that lighting was used provided the earliest rabbis with tools and fodder for developing new expressions of piety that could be performed in one's household. How lamps, oils, and wicks were used in Roman-era Palestine (second-third century CE) played an influential role in the development of rabbinic Judaism. I show this through rabbinic prescriptions on lighting lamps on Friday evening to mark the onset of the Sabbath, as the different wicks and oils created opportunities for one to choose to perform the custom in rabbinically-prescribed ways. I next demonstrate how the rabbis drew on common lighting practices to reinterpret biblical laws on the now-destroyed Jerusalem Temple cult into expressions of piety that can be performed in households throughout Roman Palestine. In this way, the materiality of light contributed towards the ancient rabbis' role in transforming Judaism in the post-Temple age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foodcrusts have received relatively little attention in the burgeoning field of proteomic analysis of ancient cuisine. We remain ignorant of how cooking and burial impact protein survival, and crucially, the extent to which the extractome reflects the composition of input ingredients. Therefore, through experimental analogues, we explore the extent of protein survival in unburied and buried foodcrusts and ceramics using ‘typical’ Mesolithic ingredients (red deer, Atlantic salmon and sweet chestnut). We then explore a number of physicochemical properties theorised to aid protein preservation. The results reveal that proteins were much more likely to be detected in foodcrusts than ceramics using the methodology employed, that input ingredient strongly influences protein preservation, and that degradation is not universal nor linear between proteins, indicating that multiple protein physicochemical properties are at play. While certain properties such as hydrophobicity apparently aid protein preservation, none single-handedly explain why particular proteins/peptides survive in buried foodcrusts: this complex interplay requires further investigation. The findings demonstrate that proteins indicative of the input ingredient can be identifiable in foodcrust, but that the full proteome is unlikely to preserve. While this shows promise for the survival of proteins in archaeological foodcrust, further research is needed to accurately interpret foodcrust extractomes.

This study focuses on the analysis of pottery firing techniques during the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages in the Karst region of Slovenia. Given the absence of archaeological structures, we adopted an alternative research approach, employing FTIR and ceramic thin-section analysis. The archaeological material underwent study using a model derived from archaeological experiments, which encompassed firing techniques in both pits and pottery kilns. Our research successfully identified that various firing structures were utilized during the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages.

Lithic artifacts are some of the most common and numerous remains recovered from paleolithic archaeological sites. However, these materials can undergo multiple post‐depositional alterations after their introduction into the archaeological record. Due to the high quantity of lithic remains recovered, a quick, flexible, and effective method for identifying degrees of alteration on the surface of lithic implements is highly desirable. The present study examines the use of gray level images to obtain quantitative data from the surface of flint artifacts and determine whether these images can detect the presence of post‐depositional alterations. An experimental collection of flints was subjected to sequential episodes of rounding in a tumbling machine. After each episode, photographs were taken with a microscope, resulting in quantitative surface values using gray level values. The quantitative surface values were used as variables in machine learning models to determine time of exposure and the most salient variables for discrimination. Our results indicate that the extraction of metrics from gray level images successfully capture changes in the surface of flint artifacts caused by post‐depositional processes. Additional results provide insight into which areas to sample when seeking post‐depositional alterations and underscore the importance of particle size in the generation of alterations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We can define at least three levels of experiments in archaeology. First, those who aim to reconstruct the prehistoric working processes based on original conditions. Second, the ones that seek to understand techniques, tools and prehistoric craft in general. They often are executed under modern conditions. And, third, experiments that aim to expand the researcher's knowledge guided by prehistoric evidence. Finally, a fourth category, often used unknowingly of its experimental character and importance, aims at understanding the consequences of our actions. This article presents the theoretical background against which the various experimental activities contribute to understanding prehistoric crafts. It will show how 'the things we do', the implicit knowledge and our habitus, can help illuminate prehistoric craftspeople's actions. The brief introduction of the questionnaire approach as another method of studying prehistoric crafts emphasises the importance of questions in research. This article will discuss the importance of integrating experimental archaeology in order to ask qualified questions and allow us to quantify the qualitative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Northwest China is known for its Majiayao‐style Neolithic painted pottery which has received much praise for its high level of craftsmanship, yet its chain of production, in particular the step of raw material selection, is still poorly understood. To fill this lacuna, the present study explores the raw materials used in producing these wares from a geological and technological perspective. At its core stands the first geoarchaeological survey conducted around the eponymous site of Majiayao which collected 47 samples of raw materials suitable for ceramic production including clay, loess and rocks, which were all analysed macroscopically. A selection was analysed using thin‐section petrography, and a subset of the clay and loess samples were subjected to firing experiments. Additionally, three clay samples were analysed by scanning electron microscope with energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectrometer to understand their composition and behaviour in ceramic production. These were then compared to archaeological ceramics, thus providing insights into raw‐material availability and selection that will be of importance not only for research on Majiayao‐style pottery but also for later‐period ceramics produced in the area. This research shows how an archaeologically informed geological survey can contribute insights into human–environment interaction in early pottery production, especially the interplay between raw‐material availability, technological know‐how and potters' choices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We examine how earlier 18th and 19th c. antiquaries and scientists mentioned the presence of textile remnants on metal objects • We draw a parallel with contemporary work on a related mechanism, the petrification of wood • We show that the petrification of wood gave rise to experimental archaeology as early as the 16th c. • We discuss how material transformation is influenced by alchemical views of transmutation and imprinting • This conceptualisation has an impact on our contemporary study of mineralised textiles In temperate latitudes, archaeological textiles are rarely found during excavations, except when they have been mineralised in contact with metal artefacts, copper or iron-based. Mineralised textiles are often the only direct source of information on the textile techniques and processes of ancient civilisations. Vivi Sylwan's description of textiles along the Silk Road in the early 20th century is often considered the first detailed archaeological description of mineralised textiles, while the physico-chemist Leo Biek pioneered their microscopic description. In this paper, we examine how antiquaries and scholars from the 18th and the first half of the 19th century identified and studied the presence of textile remains on metal objects, seemingly aware of the significance of these findings. These descriptions share common concepts and vocabulary with writings from the 16th to the early 18th century on petrification of wood. The authors not only show an awareness of and an interest in textile remains, but also question, including experimentally, the process of mineralisation, shaping the modern perception of it with concepts such as "transmutation" or "imprinting". These ancient sources had a lasting impact on our contemporary appraisal of these materials, as we shall discuss in the second stage of this review, which will be devoted to contemporary methods of studying archaeological mineralised textiles. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bone retouchers, while often underrated, stand out as widespread tools throughout the Palaeolithic, typically linked to breaking bones for marrow extraction. Although bone retouchers are commonly considered a by-product of butchering activities, the possibility of intentional manufacturing has been rarely considered but should not be dismissed. In our experimental protocol, we explore decision-making processes involved in manufacturing bone retouchers, focusing on how these decisions are guided by intentional production rather than solely marrow extraction. The results indicate that individuals employ specific techniques and make technological decisions, rapidly acquiring experience in retoucher manufacturing that extends beyond mere intuition. The choice of bone-breaking technique(s) reflects the intention behind either marrow extraction or producing suitable bone fragments for retouchers. This decision-making process is heavily influenced by the morphology of the bone, presenting challenges that individuals learn to overcome during the experiment. The analysis of the experimental percussion marks suggests that certain marks on specific skeletal elements indicate intentional bone retoucher manufacturing. We then propose a likelihood grid to assess the reliability of traces on each skeletal element in inferring intentional manufacturing. Given the abundance of bone retouchers in Middle Palaeolithic contexts, a thorough investigation into the intentionality behind their manufacturing processes could significantly impact their relevance within other Palaeolithic bone industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shifts in projectile technology potentially document human evolutionary milestones, such as adaptations for different environments and settlement dynamics. A relatively direct proxy for projectile technology is projectile impact marks (PIM) on archaeological bones. Increasing awareness and publication of experimental data sets have recently led to more identifications of PIM in various contexts, but diagnosing PIM from other types of bone-surface modifications, quantifying them, and inferring point size and material from the bone lesions need more substantiation. Here, we focus on PIM created by osseous projectiles, asking whether these could be effectively identified and separated from lithic-tipped weapons. We further discuss the basic question raised by recent PIM research in zooarchaeology: why PIM evidence is so rare in archaeofaunal assemblages (compared to other human-induced marks), even when they are explicitly sought. We present the experimental results of shooting two ungulate carcasses with bone and antler points, replicating those used in the early Upper Paleolithic of western Eurasia. Half of our hits resulted in PIM, confirming that this modification may have been originally abundant. However, we found that the probability of a skeletal element to be modified with PIM negatively correlates with its preservation potential, and that much of the produced bone damage would not be identifiable in a typical Paleolithic faunal assemblage. This quantification problem still leaves room for an insightful qualitative study of PIM. We complement previous research in presenting several diagnostic marks that retain preservation potential and may be used to suggest osseous, rather than lithic, projectile technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smith and Kidder (1951:44) were among the first to highlight pyrite pre-Hispanic mirrors as "marvels of painstaking craftsmanship." These mirrors present reflective surfaces consisting of 20–50 pyrite tesserae with beveled edges, perfectly cut, and average 2 mm in thickness. The first known examples of mirrors in Mesoamerica were the "Olmec" type—a concave mirror created from a single hematite piece developed during the Middle Preclassic period. Later, in the Classic period, pyrite mosaic mirrors replaced them. Unfortunately, we do not understand the changes from one type to the other. In this work, we present two pyrite mirrors found at the site of Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, Mexico, dating around 700–500 b.c., as possible forerunners of Classic pyrite mirrors. Also, we present traceological analysis of their manufacturing process using experimental archaeology and scanning electron microscopy. Based on these examinations, we identify likely materials and techniques employed in crafting them. We posit that production of these mirrors could have been the result of the development of specialized artisans at distinct workshops, increasing the complexity and labor investment in the lapidary objects as prestige goods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of technologies related to plastic mineral matters (PMM), including clay, mud, and plaster, represents a major step in cultural evolution because of their important repercussions for food processing, storage, transportation, construction, and symbolic expression in past human societies. This paper aims to illuminate the chaînes opératoires employed in the transformation of PMM and highlight early evidence for these technologies in the archaeological record. Our focus is 'ad-hoc' (or non-manufactured) ground stone tools used in finishing operations. Specifically, we discuss pebbles and cobbles employed to regularize, smooth, or burnish clay and mud-based products. Because these tools consist of unmodified rocks, recognizing and understanding the traces developed through use is essential for their identification. This is a pilot study that draws on experiments, ethnographic studies and quantification via confocal microscopy to assess the variability of use-wear developed on mud and clay processors. Extra attention is placed on micro-polish, not only because this type of wear has been seldom described before for such tools, but also because it appears to be highly diagnostic. We suggest that the variability observed can be described as a family of wear, that is, a range of recurrent use-wear characteristics associated with the processing of PMM. We analyze two collections associated with different chrono-cultural contexts: the Late Natufian site of Hilazon Tachtit in the Southern Levant and the Late Neolithic site of Kremasti-Kilada in Greece. At both sites, the identification of processors of PMM provides pivotal data to understand the relevant chaînes opératoires, assess the emergence and development of these technologies, and also explore symbolic behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The improvement of the archaeomagnetic dating method requires compiling new and older data of the Earth's magnetic field (EMF) variations for the last millennia. Combustion events from fumier sequences have been proposed as good directional EMF recorders. However, they are subjected to diverse taphonomical processes and how these affect the archaeomagnetic record has not yet been studied. In order to evaluate it, here we report the first archaeomagnetic and rock-magnetic results on samples from experimentally recreated fumiers since 2014 under controlled conditions. A facies description with unprecedent resolution was used to study the variation of magnetic properties in depth. Rock-magnetic analyses indicate a homogenous magnetic mineralogy dominated by pseudo-single domain magnetite as main carrier in all facies, with not very high and similar contribution of the finest (superparamagnetic) grains. The low values of anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) indicate that the studied sample set is mainly isotropic. The directional behaviour in well-preserved burned facies (here described as G, LM and DGB), are jointly characterized by highly reversible thermomagnetic curves, high Koenigberger (Q n) ratio values and intense, univectorial and normal polarity orthogonal NRM demagnetization diagrams. On the contrary, specimens affected by mechanical alteration processes are less magnetic and show anomalous directional behaviours. The high thermomagnetic reversibility of ashes indicates that they reached ca. 600–700 °C, in line with the thermocouples' data. Temperatures of 460 °C were obtained for the DGB facies (subyacent black carbonaceous facies). Sampling of ashes located on the top of these combustion events should be avoided for archaeomagnetism. Being just beneath the last stabling episode they are the most prone to undergo mechanical alterations and do not preserve well the Earth's magnetic field direction. Despite their unlithified nature and the multiple taphonomic processes that fumier sequences may undergo, under certain quality criteria, they are valid geomagnetic field recorders providing both information of archaeological and geophysical interest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origin of complex behaviour amongst early humans is a subject of heated debate within the scientific community, and the study of small prey remains has become a significant aspect when examining such modern behaviour. Nonetheless, the consumption of small prey by human populations poses analytical difficulties due to the often negligible, or entirely absent, traces on bone surfaces. To address this difficulty, an experimental study focusing on terrestrial avifauna has been prepared, and here we present a preliminary phase of this research. The aim is to distinguish potential modifications on bird bone surfaces and fracture patterns that might facilitate the recognition of human manipulation of avian skeletal remains. Building upon the challenges encountered in the study of archaeological findings recovered from recent excavations in Iberian Middle Palaeolithic sites, the experimental protocol was formulated to encompass the processing of two uncooked and three roasted birds; and the lithic use-wear analysis of the flint flake used in the processing of raw birds. The results showcase distinct patterns of bone surface modifications and breakage between cooked and uncooked birds. Higher numbers of cut marks and manual disarticulation breaks are found on raw animals, whereas roasted animals show no cut marks, local-specific burns and higher bone loss. This pilot-study provides a baseline for future research to further explore the role of avifauna in Neanderthal subsistence and food processing, which may help highlight cultural choices.