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Representing the base-10 structure of numbers is a challenging cognitive ability, unique to humans, but it is yet unknown how precisely this is done. Here, we examined whether and how literate adults represent a number's full syntactic structure. In 5 experiments, participants repeated number-word sequences and we systematically varied the order of words within each sequence. Repetition on grammatical sequences (e.g., two hundred ninety-seven) was better than on non-grammatical ones (hundred seven two ninety). We conclude that the participants represented the number's full syntactic structure and used it to merge number words into chunks in short-term memory. Accuracy monotonously improved for sequences with increasingly longer grammatical segments, up to a limit of [approximately] 4 words per segment, irrespectively of the number of digits, and worsened thereafter. Namely, short chunks improved memorization, whereas oversized chunks disrupted memorization. This chunk size limit suggests that the chunks are not based on predefined structures, whose size limit is not expected to be so low, but are created ad hoc by a generative process, such as the hierarchical syntactic representation hypothesized in Michael McCloskey's number-processing model. Chunking occurred even when it disrupted performance, as in the oversized chunks, and even when external cues for chunking were controlled for or were removed. We conclude that the above generative process operates automatically rather than voluntarily. To date, this is the most detailed account of the core representation of the syntactic structure of numbers--a critical aspect of numerical literacy and of the ability to read and write numbers.

Negation is a universal component of human language; polarity sensitivity (i.e., lexical distributional constraints in relation to negation) is arguably so while being pervasive across languages. Negation has long been a field of inquiry in psychological theories and experiments of reasoning, which inspired many follow-up studies of negation and negation-related phenomena in psycholinguistics. In generative theoretical linguistics, negation and polarity sensitivity have been extensively studied, as the related phenomena are situated at the interfaces of syntax, semantics and pragmatics, and are thus extremely revealing about the architecture of grammar. With the now long tradition of research on negation and polarity in psychology and psycholinguistics, and the emerging field of experimental semantics and pragmatics, a multitude of interests and experimental paradigms have emerged which call for re-evaluations and further development and integration. This special issue contains a collection of 16 research articles on the processing of negation and negation-related phenomena including polarity items, questions, conditionals, and irony, using a combination of behavioral (e.g., rating, reading, eye-tracking and sentence completion) and neuroimaging techniques (e.g., EEG). They showcase the processing of negation and polarity with or without context, in various languages and across different populations (adults, typically developing and ADHD children). The integration of multiple theoretical and empirical perspectives in this collection provides new insights, methodological advances and directions for future research.

Saussure proposed the division language/parole and argued that language can be studied as a formal system. Fifty years later Chomsky declared competence the core interest of linguistics. Although for years Generative second language acquisition (GenSLA) has adopted this view, a number of recent publications poke holes into the competence bubble. Westergaard's article is among those that pushes the boundaries of Generative Grammar (GG). In our commentary, we propose that Westergaard's Micro-cue Model (McM) and the Linguistic Proximity Model (LPM) may actually be closer to a Usage-Based Approach (UbA) to language development than to the original spirit of GG, and that Westergaard's sound, evidence-based proposals face some drag by being presented under the aegis of GG. Specifically, the assumption that all learning derives from general cognitive processes--hence, no essential difference between L1, L2, and Ln; the use of cues that are emergent and acquired piecemeal, and the idea that language development proceeds from the specific to the general, are all hallmarks of the UbA. We believe Westergaard's contribution is important and timely and should encourage a better appreciation of the work being done in other domains as well as an understanding of how the different approaches complement each other.

In a pioneer paper, Featherston (Featherston, Sam. 2007. Data in generative grammar: The stick and the carrot. Theoretical Linguistics 33. 269–318) advocated the use of better controlled data in theoretical linguistics. Despite diverging on many aspects, most syntactic theories are now testing their hypotheses with more data than a few linguists' intuitions. I will examine the consequences of this empirical turn on two syntactic phenomena: long-distance dependencies (LDD) and ellipsis. In a series of recent experiments (Liu, Yingtong, Elodie Winckel, Anne Abeillé, Barbara Hemforth & Edward Gibson. 2022. Structural, functional and processing perspectives on linguistic islands effects. Annual Review of Linguistics 8. 495–525), most of the syntactic constraints ('island constraints') on LDD have shown less crosslinguistic variation and more cross-construction variation than previously thought. Corpus and experimental data have also shown elliptical clauses to be more flexible than expected under deletion-under-identity theories (Poppels, Till. 2022. Explaining ellipsis without identity. The Linguistic Review 39. 341–400). These are challenges for most syntactic theories, which call for taking discourse factors more seriously into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We review some of the main goals of theoretical linguistics in the tradition of Generative Grammar: description, evolvability and learnability. We evaluate recent efforts to address these goals, culminating with the Minimalist Program. We suggest that the most prominent versions of the Minimalist Program represent just one possible approach to addressing these goals, and not a particularly illuminating one in many respects. Some desirable features of an alternative minimalist theory are the dissociation between syntax and linear order, the emphasis on representational economy (i.e. Simpler Syntax) and an extra-grammatical account of non-local constraints (e.g. islands). We conclude with the outline of an alternative minimalist perspective that we believe points to more satisfactory accounts of the observed phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article devises an analytical framework that synthesizes neo-Gramscian and social constructivist perspectives to dissect international regimes amid global hegemonic shifts. It portrays regimes as intersubjective constructs with unique social purposes within the broader hegemonic fabric, shaped by dominant ideologies and power distributions. The study examines the transition of the trade regime from General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to World Trade Organization (WTO) through the Uruguay Round (1986-1994) and the Doha Round's deadlock since 2001. The article posits that the Uruguay Round marked a pivotal hegemonic transformation, transitioning the regime from embedded liberalism to neoliberalism by transforming its social purpose, norms, and generative grammar. Yet, this shift, which precipitated a legitimacy crisis within the WTO and was exacerbated by the Doha Round's failure to regenerate neoliberal hegemony with a fresh synthesis of free trade and sustainable development, arguably rendered the WTO directionless and contributed to the fragmentation of global trade governance amidst emerging regional pacts and varied ideological visions of economic liberalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present contribution starts from Goldberg and Perek's (2019) analysis of gapping within a constructionist framework. The authors promote their analysis as surpassing non-constructionist takes on gapping and ellipsis more generally. In particular, they claim predictive power. That this is not the whole truth is explained in detail in this contribution. It is shown which predictions can be made from their perspective versus from a generative perspective and it is discussed whether they are borne out. Furthermore, I highlight how the predictions relate to the fundamentals of the respective theories and, as a consequence, how they differ in kind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This special issue examines the question of how both formal(ist) and functional(ist) accounts or elements of theorizing can contribute to the explanation of (morpho)syntactic variation. Are formal and functional approaches really irreconcilable with each other, as often seems to be taken for granted by their respective advocates? It will be argued instead that they are rather complementary and that both can make a valuable contribution to explaining linguistic variation, in synchronic as well as diachronic respects. The integration of ways of looking at a certain phenomenon or problem from the respective other camp is proven to provide a significant added value and should not be excluded. The volume focuses on several Germanic languages and dialects, more specifically on German, Dutch, and Swedish varieties. It unites different formal and functional perspectives and, not least, it considers also semantic and phonological factors. The models covered include different versions of generative grammar, information-based morphology, construction grammar/construction morphology, natural morphology, and sociolinguistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unlike wh-question questions in Standard Arabic (SA), which received much attention in the past decades in different approaches within generative grammar, question particles (yes-no questions) in SA have not yet been studied thoroughly in minimalist syntax, and less attention has been paid to them. There is a need to analyze SA question articles and explore their syntactic behavior within minimalism. The reason why this topic has been selected for study is that SA question particles have not been investigated in detail yet in Chomsky's Phase Theory; it has not been analyzed how question particles are derived and represented morpho-syntactically in a clause structure. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the morpho-syntax of SA question particles and provide satisfactory answers to the following questions: (i) Do question particles in SA undergo any syntactic movement to [Spec-CP] in the derivation of yes-no questions? If not, why?, (ii) Are question particles based-generated in [Spec-CP]?, and (iii) How can question particles be accounted for neatly in Chomsky's Phase-based Theory? The paper adopts Chomsky's Phase Theory to examine the interaction between the assumptions of this theory and the SA data on question particles. The study findings reveal that, unlike English, question particles in SA do not undergo any syntactic movement while deriving yes-no questions and are assumed to be base-generated in [Spec-CP]. Such question particles are not part of the verb morphology and are merely morphological affixes used as devices to mark interrogativity in the syntax; they do not carry any agreement and tense features that trigger syntactic movement to the clause-initial position. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the relationship between theory and observation in scientific research, specifically in the field of linguistics. It discusses different perspectives on the role of observation and data in linguistic research, with a focus on generative syntax. The article emphasizes the importance of intuitive judgments and introspective data in this field, while also acknowledging the value of linguistic corpora and experimental methods. It concludes by presenting two papers that offer new perspectives on existing data in linguistics. The article is part of a collection of papers written to honor the 90th birthday of Mary A. Kato, a respected linguist. These papers cover various topics in linguistics, including language acquisition, syntax, semantics, and the use of judgment data in research. The authors present their findings based on extensive research and analysis of data from different sources, such as corpora and experimental studies. The papers provide valuable insights into the field of linguistics and highlight the significance of judgment data in linguistic research. [Extracted from the article]

This document is a review of the book "Generative Linguistics: A Historical Perspective" by Frederick J. Newmeyer. The reviewer praises the book's comprehensive coverage of the history of generative linguistics, specifically the transition from post-Bloomfieldian structuralism to transformational-generative grammar (TGG). The book examines the impact of Noam Chomsky's work on linguistics, the reception of TGG in Europe, and the contested elections within the Linguistic Society of America (LSA). The reviewer commends Newmeyer's use of personal correspondence and archival material to provide a nuanced understanding of the field's development, and suggests that the book may inspire further research on the history of linguistics. [Extracted from the article]

Exocentric compounds, also referred to as bahuvrihi compounds, are distinguishable from other classes of compounds, e.g., endocentric, in the ground that their meanings are unpredictable and idiosyncratic. For this single most important reason, these compounds have been marginalized and didn't receive as closer attention as the other classes. But the question is, are these types of choices really random? Their mere scale of productivity would deny the assumption that they are random and unsystematic. This paper originates in the assumption that these compounds in fact lend sufficient evidence that their formation and 'idiosyncratic' interpretation is on the other hand very systematic and can be explained elegantly if we bring into perspective the cultural aspect which regulates their formation through the mechanism of metonymic/metaphoric relations. In order to substantiate the claim, this study designed an exercise for Punjabi language speakers/experts where they were given novel (non-prevalent) exocentric compounds and were asked to interpret them. The study lent a great deal of support to the view adopted that the culturally shared knowledge allowed the respondents to interpret these exocentric compounds fairly correctly. The results are encouraging that the cultural aspect of the compounds holds true which explains the assumption that these types of compounds are systematic and a rule governed phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ross (1967) observed that the coordinate structure constraint can be violated in certain semantically asymmetric structures. In this article we consider one of these structures, namely type A coordination, in detail (the terminology is from Lakoff 1986; an example is Here's the whisky I went to the store and bought). We present experimental evidence showing that the pattern of argument and adjunct extraction from type A coordinate structures matches the pattern of argument and adjunct extraction from structures containing rationale clauses in all crucial respects. This near-perfect parallel behavior suggests that, like rationale clauses, the second conjunct in a type A coordination is an adjunct (see also Brown 2017). We explore the consequences of this finding for both interpretive and syntactic analyses of asymmetric coordination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we first introduce the notion of (incident) higher-order generalized epiderivative for a set-valued map and obtain a crucial result of the epiderivative. Then we use this result to establish the higher-order sufficient and necessary optimality conditions of a constrained set-valued optimization problem. By virtue of the epiderivatives and the optimality conditions, we establish the higher-order mixed duality problem for the set-valued optimization problem and obtain the corresponding duality theorems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impersonal constructions describe generic statements, usually about people. In this article, I discuss implications of impersonal constructions for Generative theories of morphological features, grammatical case, verbal projections, and how referentiality is derived in the syntax. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The text discusses a book titled "Construction Grammar across Borders," which explores the field of Construction Grammar and its impact on various areas of linguistic study. The book includes chapters that examine the theoretical compatibility of Construction Grammar with related approaches, the role of semantics in grammatical description, and the application of Construction Grammar in historical linguistics. The authors present different perspectives and propose new ideas within the framework of Construction Grammar. The book aims to contribute to the ongoing progress and evolution of Construction Grammar as a field of study. [Extracted from the article]

For centuries, transforming the cubic space to a spherical dome was a matter of challenge, structurally and formally. The squinch was the primary solution to build the 'divine' sphere over basic cubic chambers in palaces and mosques in Iran (Memarian et al. in J Iran Archit Urban 8(2):75–84, 2017) that mediated its geometric transformation. In this research, the authors will answer the question of where and how did this innovative transformative squinch, or as it will be defined here, 'chapireh,' become quintessential for all generative Islamic tectonics like karbandi and ornaments like muqarnas. For that purpose, we simulated and modeled different types of Islamic tectonics and their bottom-up formation process from early generations of the transformative chapireh to the complex evolved version of the tectonic. Towards this end, we approach chapireh through a shape grammar as a generative computational tool for forming new tectonics out of basic Islamic modules and simple rules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The book "Current Issues in Syntactic Cartography: A crosslinguistic perspective" edited by Fuzhen Si and Luigi Rizzi provides a comprehensive study of syntactic cartography. The book is organized into 12 papers that focus on theoretical and descriptive issues of specific aspects of syntactic cartography. The chapters cover topics such as the left periphery, the Inflection Phrase (IP) zone, and the Verb Phrase (VP) zone. The book includes contributions from leading scholars and explores various languages, including Romance, Germanic, Semitic, Japanese, and Chinese. It is recommended for linguists interested in generative syntax and offers new theories and unfamiliar data for exploration. [Extracted from the article]

At the present study, some Morpho-phonological processes in Azeri Turkish, Zanjani Dialect were studied based on Optimality Theory (Prince & Smolenski, 1993). This was a descriptive-analytical study and was based on interviews with 30 native speakers (between 15 and 75 years old) of Zanjan in three groups of adolescents, middle-aged, and the elderly (each group included 10 interviewees). Their voices were recorded and later were transcribed. All the words were transcribed based on IPA, version 2005. Constraints were identified and ranked. Those constraints which were of two kinds (markedness and faithfulness) competed against one another to select the optimal candidate. Results illustrated that ONSET and HARMONY were high-ranked constraints, whereas IDENT-IO constraint was low-ranked one, the violation of which didn't render the candidate non-optimal. It can also be concluded that morpho-phonological rules in Turkish Azeri, Zanjani Dialect could be analyzed via the optimality theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article "Where are features?" by Lohndal and Putnam discusses a theoretical framework for understanding the grammatical competence of monolingual and multilingual speakers. The authors argue for an approach that separates syntax and morphology, with features situated in the syntactic component and realized post-syntactically in morphology. The article also explores the connection between grammatical theory and research on contact-induced change, advocating for a theoretical debate on the architecture of grammar. The author of the commentary agrees with the goal of integrating the study of contact phenomena into the theoretical debate, but disagrees with some of the specific assumptions made by Lohndal and Putnam. They argue that morphology is an autonomous component of grammar and provide evidence from their own research on morphological borrowing to support this view. [Extracted from the article]

The article discusses the importance of studying multilingual grammars in order to understand the nature of linguistic capacity. It argues that most humans are multilingual, and therefore, the study of language should accommodate multilingualism. The article also explores the challenges associated with bringing multilingualism into syntactic theory and the need to understand monolingual grammars before studying multilingual grammars. It suggests that a scientific approach should be taken to investigate the extent to which the same grammatical architecture is used in both monolingual and multilingual speakers. The article concludes by emphasizing the need for theories that can handle inter and intraspeaker variation in multilingual contexts. [Extracted from the article]

The article titled "Number feature within generative grammar and its acquisition" discusses different theoretical proposals regarding the representation of number in syntax and its implications for language acquisition. The authors argue that the exoskeletal approach to grammar, which focuses on the contribution of underlying syntactic features and their morphophonological exponents, needs further development. They also highlight the need to consider the pragmatic component of number and its interaction with reference in acquisition studies. The article provides insights into the acquisition of number in monolingual and bilingual speakers, as well as the challenges faced by the exoskeletal approach in accounting for different languages and levels of proficiency. [Extracted from the article]

Simple rewriting rules are used to produce alphanumeric strings that embed fractal number sequences and are directly translatable into descriptions of hydrocarbon structures of considerable complexity, featuring hierarchical schemes. Rotations of the alphanumeric strings lead to radical rearrangements of the corresponding structures, which lose their initial schemes and become much less predictable, featuring different topologies of polygonal cycles. This shows that a complex and not necessarily ordered molecular structure may nevertheless have a relatively low algorithmic complexity. The variety and versatility of reorganization in chemical topology, due to the nonlocal representation of bonds in the coding string, may have played a role in prebiotic chemistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Formal tools and models of syntactic pattern recognition which are used in bioinformatics are introduced and characterized in the paper. They include, among others: stochastic (string) grammars and automata, hidden Markov models, programmed grammars, attributed grammars, stochastic tree grammars, Tree Adjoining Grammars (TAGs), algebraic dynamic programming, NLC- and NCE-type graph grammars, and algebraic graph transformation systems. The survey of applications of these formal tools and models in bioinformatics is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers the means for conceptual design of complex technical systems. A quasi-axiomatic theory was constructed that formalizes the procedures of generating meaning for a natural language description of the process of creating a new technical solution. Semantic categories, structures of universal sets, and operations for comparing elements of the universe are introduced. The types of connection of elementary subsystems are described. A formalization of the procedure for multilevel synthesis of a technical system using a generative grammar over fuzzy structures is proposed. An example of the design of a technical device is given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses articles in the issue on topics including the Construction Grammar, specifically exploring how constructional approaches can be integrated and utilized in formal grammar.

For decades, interdisciplinary research efforts have accumulated insights that diminish the significance of the classic nature versus nurture dichotomy, instead calling for a nuanced, multifactorial approach to ontogeny. Similarly, the role of genes in both phylogeny and ontogeny, once seen as rather deterministic, is now conceptualized as highly dependent on environmental factors, including behavior. Linguistic theories have, in principle, made an effort to incorporate these changing views. However, the central claim of the given paper is that this apparent compliance with biological insights remains superficial. As such, considerable disconnects between linguistic theory and what is known about the biological underpinnings of complex traits persist, negatively impacting pertinent views on language acquisition, language universals and the evolution of language. Given the breadth of these fields of study, the aim of this paper is to tackle the root of the problem: It begins by sketching out linguistic nativism as conceptualized within generativism, pointing to aspects within this position that stand in conflict with the interdisciplinary literature. It will then review select areas of research in a succinct manner in order to substantiate the criticism and characterize the counterposition as found within the biological sciences. The paper will culminate in addressing these disconnects on conceptual grounds, i.e. invoking the term emergence as employed in neuroscience as a possible means to reconcile those biological insights with linguistic nativism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Guglielmo Cinque, the author of the book under review, once claimed that the asymmetries of linear order fit directly into Kayne's LCA (Cinque [5]). Berwick & Chomsky ([1]) and Chomsky ([4]) suggest that structures are created by the operation Merge in narrow syntax, and unordered structures are externalized in the sensorimotor system. Chomsky ([2]) partially agrees with Kayne ([8]) and "takes the LCA to be a principle of the phonological component" (Chomsky [2]: 313). [Extracted from the article]

In Chapter 1, "The structuralist ascendancy in American linguistics", Newmeyer considers how structuralism of a particular kind came to dominate American linguistics. The most interesting in my view is Chapter 6, 'The European reception of early transformational generative grammar', which sketches the very different ways in which generative grammar was received in the various countries of Europe. Newmeyer turns to generative grammar in Chapter 4, 'Early transformational generative grammar: Some controversial issues'. This book is concerned with the evolution of American linguistics from the foundation of the Linguistic Society of America (LSA) in 1924 until the 1960s. [Extracted from the article]

This paper investigates the behaviors of tag questions in Chinese and proposes a unifying analysis involving empty CP/DP pro-forms and predication. It is found that there are universally two types of Tag questions – (i) the invariable type and (ii) the (modal) verbal type, which correspond to the question-types in Chinese syntax. Previous research by Culivocer (1992. English tag questions in Universal Grammar. Lingua 88. 193–226) analyzed English tag questions as a pro-IP structure that is bound by a previous sentence. However, in Chinese, two types of tag questions include both A-not-A form and particle form. Furthermore, both the two kinds of tag questions display syntactic predication between the tag and an empty subject pro. An abbreviated "yes-no question" is attached to empty CP/DP constituents in these constructions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the other hand, word forms of the syntax module are indicated by the numeral 0 (e.g. H[0] is intended to correspond to a V[1] and serve as the phrasal head of the verb phrase that the V[1] builds). Perhaps, sub-word elements and word forms in the morphology module should have been -1 (e.g. V[-1], which now reads "a verb stem") and 0 (e.g. V[0], which now reads "a verb word form") respectively, so that the numeral 0 always represents a word form, regardless of differences in the morphology and syntax modules. These numbers were invented to indicate that the two modules are not connected in series but placed in parallel, but it is confusing that the morphology module has a word form of 1 and the syntax module has a word form of 0, since the interface between the two modules ought to be an identical word form. Sub-word elements of the morphology module are indicated by the numeral 0 (e.g. V[0], which reads "a verb stem") and word forms in the morphology module are indicated by the numeral 1 (e.g. V[1], which reads "a verb word form"). [Extracted from the article]

The book "Histoire des parties du discours" by Bernard Colombat and Aimée Lahaussois provides a comprehensive historical overview of the parts of speech and their development in language sciences. The book covers the early approaches in Platonic dialogues, Aristotelian and Stoic Logic, the Latin grammatical tradition, and their reception in humanist and vernacular grammaticography. It also explores the application of parts of speech in different language traditions, such as Arabic and Sanskrit. The book is the result of years of research by a group dedicated to the history of conceptions about language and serves as a valuable tool for research in the field. [Extracted from the article]

A familiar argument goes as follows: natural languages have infinitely many sentences, finite representation of infinite sets requires recursion; therefore any adequate account of linguistic competence will require some kind of recursive device. The first part of this paper argues that this argument is not convincing. The second part argues that it was not the original reason recursive devices were introduced into generative linguistics. The real basis for the use of recursive devices stems from a deeper philosophical concern; a grammar that functions merely as a metalanguage would not be explanatorily adequate as it would merely push the problem of explaining linguistic competence back to another level. The paper traces this concern from Zellig Harris and Chomsky's early work in generative linguistics and presents some implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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During the first century BC, the famous Roman architect, Vitruvius, defined architecture as encompassing three essential properties: I firmitas i (firmness), I utilitas i (utility), and I venustas i (attractiveness or beauty). Contributions This Special Issue comprises 14 articles, with 11 original research articles and one systematic review on the applications of Space Syntax methods and 2 on Shape Grammar research. Lastly, Muslimin [[17]] addresses a combination of Space Syntax and Shape Grammar approaches by incorporating graph and shape computation to generate schematic plan layouts. 1972: 1460-1465 4 Zolfagharkhani M., Ostwald M.J. The Spatial Structure of Yazd Courtyard Houses: A Space Syntax Analysis of the Topological Characteristics of the Courtyard. [Extracted from the article]

This sequence of elements is also compatible with R&D's proposal that the wh-phrase is in the Specifier of Foc, and Foc encodes the ! As a matter of fact, we had to assume that one morpheme, the declarative complementizer, is located in different syntactic positions and, at least in one case, it does not have the expected compositional import (examples (9)); moreover, we noticed that the interrogative complementizer, which by hypothesis corresponds to the ? R&D single out the special role of Foc in wh-questions by stipulating that "... a Foc head can only associate with wh-phrases if it is dominated by Int" (p. 58, discussion following [79]). Note that the anaphoric relation between Foc and the wh-phrase can be long-distance, as is the case in the extraction from a complement clause: (2) HT